
Gass QSl^ y-J " 

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Book. 






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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DlBECTOR 



WATER-SUPPLY Paper 277 



GROUND WATER 

I JUAB, MILLARD, AND IRON COUNTIES 

UTAH 



BY 



OSCAR E. MEINZER 



IN COOPERATION WITH THE STATE OF UTAH 
CALEB TANNER, STATE ENGINEER 




WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
1911 



Monograpn 



DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR 
UNITED STATES GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 

GEORGE OTIS SMITH, Director 



Water- StjppIjY Paper 277 



-3 7 ^ 

GROUND WATER - '' 

IN 

JUAB, MILLARD, AND IRON COUNTIES 

UTAH 



BY 



OSCAK E. MEINZER 



IN COOPERATION WITH THE STATE OF UTAH 
CALEB TANNER, STATE ENGINEER 




WASHINGTON 
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1911 



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CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Introduction 9 

Location and extent of area 9 

PuiiDose of investigation 9 

Acknowledgments 10 

Physiography 11 

Units of discussion 11 

Provinces 11 

Stream topography 12 

Lake topography 12 

Wind topography 13 

Minor basins 13 

Geology 15 

Formations 15 

Geologic history 16 

Rainfall IS 

Geographic distribution 18 

Annual variation 21 

Seasonal variation 22 

Relation to dry farming 22 

Soil 23 

Vegetation 24 

Streams 25 

Industrial development . 20 

Occurrence of ground water 29 

Bedrock 29 

Water in sedimentary rocks 29 

Water in igneous rocks : 30 

Confining function of bedrock 32 

Unconsolidated sediments 32 

Character of sediments 32 

Water in stream deposits 33 

Water in lake deposits 33 

Water in low valleys 34 

Water on desert flats 34 

Water on alluvial slopes or "bench lands" 36 

Water in high valleys 37< 

Artesian conditions 37 

Bedrock 37 

Unconsolidated sediments 3S 

Flows in the valleys 38 

Flows in the deserts 40 

3 



4 CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Springs 41 

Mountain springs. 41 

Seepage from unconsolidated sediments 42 

Springs from lava beds • 43 

Hot springs 43 

Pool and knoll springs 44 

Quality of ground water 45 

Substances contained in water and their effects upon its use 45 

Water from the mountain areas . 47 

Ground water in the valleys ,_ 47 

Ground water in the deserts 47 

Water from springs 48 

Irrigation with ground water 49 

Developments 49 

Prospects 49 

Quantity of water 50 

Quality of water and soil ^ 51 

Cost of pumping 51 

Value of crops j: 53 

Culinary supplies 53 

Supplies for dry farms „ 55 

Supplies for the range 56 

Boiler supplies 57 

Construction of wells 58 

Types of wells in use 58 

Drilled wells on alluvial slopes 59 

" Pit flows" 59 

Irrigation wells 60 

The California or " stovepipe " method of well construction! 60 

Conditions in California 60 

Description of apparatus and methods 61 

Advantages of California method 62 

Cost of the wells 63 

Watering places on routes of travel 64 

Railway stations and their connections 64 

Tintic mining district to Sevier Desert and Joyi 65 

Oasis to Joy, Fish Springs, and Deep Creek 65 

Stage route to Dugway, Fish Springs, and Deep Creek 66 

Oasis to Snake Valley., 66 

Newhouse to Snake Valley 66 

Black Rock and Clear Lake to Snake Valley and Ibex 67 

Juab Valley 67 

Topography and geology 67 

Rainfall ^ : 68 

Streams . 69 

Springs 70 

Flowing wells 70 

Ground water beneath the bench lands _ 72 

Quality of water 73 

Irrigation with ground water 74 

Culinary supplies 74 



CONTENTS. 5 

Page. 

Roiiiicl, Little, Sajre, Dog, and Fernow valleys 74 

Topography 74 

Geology 75 

Rainfall 75 

Water supplies K) 

Round Valley 70 

Little Valley 77 

Sage Valley 78 

Dog and Feruow valleys 78 

Tintic Valley 78 

Gen(U"al features 78 

Water resources 79 

Quality of the water 81 

Tintic mining district 81 

Geology 81 

Water in limestone and quartzite 81 

Water in igneous rocks and overlying waste 82 

Springs 82 

Wells 84 

Mines 85 

Domestic and industrial sui)plies 85 

Pavant A^nlley 8G 

Topography 86 

Geology .-_. 88 

Rainfall 88 

Streams and mountain springs 89 

Shallow-water belt 89 

Artesian prospects 90 

Water beneath the bench lands 91 

Quality of ground water 92 

Irrigation with ground water 9.". 

Culinary supplies 93 

Lower Beaver Valley 94 

Topography and geology 94 

Rainfall 95 

Streams 95 

Springs 95 

Black Rock Springs 95 

Clear Lake Springs 90 

Other springs 97 

Wells : 97 

Wells (m the Beaver Bottoms 97 

Goss well 97 

Neels well 99 

Clear Lake well KK) 

Swan Lake farm wells 100 

Shallow wells in the valley below Black Rock 101 

Old River Bed and Cherry Creek region 101 

General features 101 

Water supplies 103 

Ground water prospects 103 



6 CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Drum and Swasey Wash region , 104 

Wells at Joy 104 

Other water supplies 105 

Ground-water prospects ^ 106 

Sevier Desert : 106 

Physiography 106 

Rainfall lOS 

Ground-water level 109 

Soil 109 

Vegetation I 110 

Irrigation . 110 

Water-bearing beds 111 

Wells on the Lynn Bench and Canyon Mountain slope 111 

Wells on the low flat 112 

Artesian conditions 114 

Quality of water 115 

Wah Wah Valley 117 

General features 117 

Soil 118 

Rainfall 118 

Water supplies ^ 119 

Ground-water prospects 119 

Sevier Lake bottoms 119 

Fluctuations of the lake level . 119 

Position of the lake 120 

Quality of the lake water 120 

Gromid-water prospects 121 

White Valley - 121 

General features 121 

Springs .- 122 

Ground-water prospects . 128 

Fish Springs Valley 124 

General features 124 

Springs . -. 124 

Water in Utah mine 126 

Ground-water prospects 126 

Snake Valley — 127 . 

General conditions 127 

Rainfall and vegetation 128 

Springs and streams 129 

Big Spring and Lake Creek 129 

Snake Creek 129 

Baker Creek 129 

Knoll Springs 130 

Kell Springs and other supplies 130 

Warm Springs .. 131 

Springs at Foote's ranch: 131 

Springs bordering the Salt Marsh 131 

Springs between Salt Marsh and Trout Creek 131 

Springs at Trout Creek 132 

Springs and streams in Pleasant Valley 132 

Streams from the Deep Creek Range 132 

Willow Springs and similar springs farther north 132 

Character of the springs 132 



CONTENTS. 7 

Page. 
Snake Valley — Continued. 

Wells and ground-water prospects 133 

Burbank 133 

Garrison 134 

Between Garrison and Conger ranch 134 

Between Conger ranch and Trout Creek 134 

Pleasant Valley 135 

Below Trout Creek 135 

Callao 135 

Between Callao and Fish Springs 136 

Irrigation 137 

Parowan Valley 138 

Physiography and geology 138 

Rainfall 1 139 

Streams and mountain springs 139 

Parowan Creek 139 

Red and Little Creeks 139 

Streams north of Little Creek 140 

Streams south of Parowan Creek 140 

Valley springs 140 

Flowing wells 140 

Water beneath the bench lands 142 

Culinary supplies 142 

Rush Lake Valley 142 

Physiography and geology 142 

Rainfall 143 

Streams : 144 

Coal Creek • 144 

Shirts Creek 144 

Kanarra Creek ^ 144 

Streams in the Iron Mountains 144 

Springs 144 

At Ward's ranch 144 

At Enoch 145 

Near Shirts Lake 145 

Iron Springs 145 

Flowing wells 145 

Webster's well 145 

McConnell's well 140 

Thorley's wells 140 

William's wells 147 

Wells at Kanarraville 147 

Nonflowing wells 147 

In northern part of valley 147 

In southern part of valley 148 

Irrigation with ground water 148 

Culinary supplies 149 

Escalante Desert 149 

Physiography and geology 149 

Rainfall 150 

Soil - 150 

Streams 151 

Springs 152 



8 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 
Escalante Desert — Continned. 

Flowing wells 153 

Webster's well 153 

Wells at Sulphur Springs and Lund 153 

Nonflowing wells 153 

Hallway wells at Lund 153 

Railway well at Beryl 154 

State test well near Enterprise 155 

Well of the New Castle Reclamation Co 156 

Other wells : .' 156 

Depth to ground water 156 

Vicinity of Lund 156 

Between Lund and Modena i- 156 

Southeast of Modena 157 

North of Enterprise 157 

Vicinity of New Castle 157 

Eastern part of the desert 157 

Quality of ground water 157 

Utilization of ground water 158 

Index 159 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page. 

Plate I. Map of Juab and Millard counties, Utah 10 

11. Map of Iron County, Utah 16 

III. Well sections in Sevier Desert and lower Beaver Valley 36 

IV. Topographic map of Fish Springs quadrangle In pocket. 

V. Diagram showing flow of the springs that supply Silver City 

and the relation of flow to precipitation 78 

Figure 1. Map of Utah, showing areas investigated 10 

2. Map of Juab, Millard, Beaver, and Iron counties, Utah, show- 

ing areas covered by Lake Bonneville 17 

3. Diagram showing annual precipitation at stations in Juab, 

Millard, and Iron counties, Utah 20 

4. Diagram showing average monthly precipitation at stations 

in Juab, Millard, and Iron counties, Utah 21 

5. Diagrammatic cross section of a typical valley 38 

6. Perforator for slitting stovepipe casing 62 

7. Roller type of perforator 62 

8. Common form of California well rig 63 

9. Map of Juab Valley, showing ground-water conditions 68 

10. Map of Tintic mining district, showing the relation of the 

water supply to the igneous rocks 83 

11. Map of Pavant Valley, showing streams, springs, and ground- 

water conditions 87 

12. Map of Holden, showing relation of ground-water table to 

surface 92 

13. Map of a part of the south basin of Rush Lake Valley 146 



GROUND WATER IN JUAB, MILLARD, AND IRON 
COUNTIES, UTAH. 



By Oscar E. Metnzer. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Location and extent of area. — Juab, Millard, and Iron counties 
lie in western Utah, and, with the exception of a small part of Iron 
County, are entire!}^ within the Great Basin. (See fig. 1.) They com- 
prise about 13,C)50 square miles, of which approximately 3,500 belong 
to Juab, C),775 to Millard, and 3,375 to Iron County. Beaver County, 
which lies between Millard and Iron counties, is not discussed in this 
paper because its water resources have been described by W. T. Lee, of 
the United States Geological Survey, in Water-Supply Paper 217. 

Purpose of investigation. — The investigation was begun in the sum- 
mer of 1908, under cooperative agreement between the Director of the 
United States Geological Survey and Caleb Tanner, State engineer 
of Utah, the object of the work being to obtain and disseminate in- 
formation which should lead to a greater utilization of the ground- 
water supplies. 

The agricultural development of an arid section, such as this, is 
primarily dependent on the amount of water available. Large tracts 
of fertile soil remain idle j^ear after year for lack of water for irriga- 
tion, Avhile much water that falls as rain and snow sinks into the 
ground, saturates the porous materials underlying the valleys and 
deserts, and eventually reappears at the surface in low alkali flats, 
where it is dissipated by evaporation without producing useful vege- 
tation. If the water thus lost can be applied to fertile soil it Avill 
substantially increase the agricultural yield of the region. 

An urgent demand for information in regard to ground-water 
prospects has been created in recent years by the adoption of dry 
farming methods in localities where water is not readily obtained. 
The water required for culinary purposes and for supplying the 
horses and traction engines used in tilling the soil on some of the dry 
farms is at present hauled long distances. 

In most of the arid parts of this region watering places of any 
sort are so scarce that certain sections are accessible for grazing only 

U 



10 



GROUND WATERS IN^ WESTERN UTAH. 



in the winter when sheep will depend on snow for their water supply. 
In some of these sections an intelligent search would probably dis- 
cover ground-water supplies which would increase greatly the value 
of the range. 




Area covered in this Area covered in AA^tep Area covered in Water- Area covered in Water- 
report Supply Paper 217 Supply Paper 199 Supply Paper 157 

Figure 1. — Map of Utah, showing areas investigated. 

Acknowledgments. — Valuable information Avas furnished by the 
San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad Co. in regard to deep 
railway wells; and four samples of water were analyzed by the State 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DIRECTOR 




TOPOGRAPHIC MAING WELLS 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 
GEORGE OTIS SMITH, DIRECTOR 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 277 PLATE 






BEAVERCO 




TOPOGRAPHIC MAP OF JUAB AND MILLARD COUNTIES, UTAH, SHOWING AREAS OF FLOWING WELLS 



PHYSIOGRAPHY. 11 

Agricultural College at Logan, Utah. Thanks are also due to the 
inhabitants of the region for their hospitality and generous 
assistance. 

PHYSIOGRAPHY. 

UNITS OF mSCUSSION. 

In dividing this region into units for convenience of discussion it 
has been found necessary to draw some rather arbitrary boundaries, 
to use names that have hitherto been known only locally, and to more 
definitely restrict recognized names than has heretofore been done. 

The term " Sevier Desert " has long been used to designate a large 
and indefinitely bounded region ; as used in this paper it refers to an 
area that is bounded on the north by the Juab-Millard County line, 
on the east by the Canyon Range, on the south by a line passing 
through Pavant Butte (Sugar Loaf Mountain) and the north end 
of the Cricket Mountains (Beaver Eange), and on the west by the 
Little Drum Mountains, Swasey Wash, and the Long Ridge. The 
adjacent region north of the county line is here called the " Cherry 
Creek and River Bed region." The term " Pavant Valley," which 
in the past has been used vaguely, is here applied to the lowland tract 
which extends from Holden to Kanosh and is bounded on the east 
by the Pavant Range and on the west by Pavant Butte and the lava 
fields that extend southward from it. The name " Lower Beaver 
Valley " is used for the valley through which the channel of Beaver 
Creek passes, from Beaver County to Sevier Desert. 

To that part of the valley of Sevier River wdiich lies in Juab 
County betAveen the Canyon Range and the northward extension of 
the Valley Range the name "Little Valley" is locally applied, and 
this name is used in this paper. For the tract extending from 
Sevier River to the " Dog Valley " in Juab County the name " Sage 
Valley " is used. 

The term " Round Valley " has been applied to the upper valley 
of Ivie Creek, which contains the reservoir, and also to the lower 
valley, in which Scipio fs situated. To avoid ambiguity, the expres- 
sions " Upper Round Valley " and " Lower Round Valley " are used 
in this paper. 

PROVINCES. 

Southwestern Utah belongs to two major physiographic prov- 
inces — the Plateau province and the Basin province. The former 
consists of nearly horizontal rock strata that have been lifted to a 
high altitude and deeply dissected by running water; the latter con- 
sists of a desert plain, several tliousand feet lower, interrupted by 
more or less parallel and isolated mountain ranges which are as a 



12 GKOUND WATEKS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

rule composed of rock strata that have been faulted and tilted. The 
boundary between these two provinces is an escarpment or series of 
escarpments, which, viewed from the Basin province, has the aspect 
of a lofty mountain range. The three counties here considered lie 
chiefly in the Basin province, and their eastern boundaries are iii 
general formed by the escarpment of the Plateau province. 

STREAM TOPOGRAPHY. 

Superimposed on the grand features produced by the diastrophic 
forces that have lifted the ]Dlateaus and thrust up the Basin ranges 
are the features produced by running water. The temporary and 
permanent streams of the region are the agents in two complementary 
processes that give rise to two shaply contrasted types of topography. 
In their upper courses on the mountains and plateaus these streams 
have steep gradients and erode vigorously, thus cutting deep canyons 
and creating intricately carved surfaces ; but in their lower courses — 
the low areas intervening between the mountain ranges — they are 
more sluggish, and their waters disappear by evaporation and down- 
ward percolation, thus depositing the sediments which they wrested 
from the mountains and building extensive gently sloping and fea- 
tureless alluvial fans. Adjacent fans merge with each other to form 
broad, smooth, alluvial slopes that everywhere surround the rugged 
mountain ranges. The alluvial slopes of neighboring ranges extend 
toward each other, and the base of one may nearly touch the base 
of the other. The entire area between two ranges is in this Region 
commonly called a " valley." 

If there had been no weathering and no work had been done by 
the streams, the relief resulting from the deformation of the rocks 
would be much greater than it is. The plateaus and mountains 
would be higher ; the basins would be lower. Ever since these topo- 
graphic irregularities came into existence the streams have been at 
work obliterating them by tearing down the mountains and filling 
the intervening basins. The extent to which the basins have thus 
been filled is known definitely at only a few points where wells of 
unusual depth have been sunk, but in many places this filling is 
probably very deep. 

LAKE TOPOGRAPHY. 

Superimposed on the surface molded by running water are strik- 
ingly different features produced by the waters of an ancient lake. 
Along the shores of this ancient lake were formed cliffs, terraces, 
beach ridges, bars, spits, and deltas such as exist along the shores of 
modern lakes. Shore features were formed at every level at which 
the lake stood for some time, but they are the most prominent at two 
levels known as the Bonneville and Provo levels. (See p. 18.) They 



PHYSIOGRAPHY. 13 

have a horizontal arrangement which attracts attention by its con- 
trast with the oblique lines produced by stream work. 

Since the desiccation of the ancient lake few important topographic 
changes have taken place. The low areas are sHll undergoing aggiia- 
dation rather than degradation, but the upper parts of the alluvial 
slopes are in some places being subjected to stream erosion. 

WIND TOPOGRAPHY. 

Wind work has been most effective in rehandling the sand that was 
washed by the waves upon the shores of the ancient lake. The storm 
winds at the time the lake was in existence seem to have been pre- 
vailingly from the west, as they are at the present time, and the 
largest accumulations of sand were consequently made on the eastern 
shore, where they have given rise to many dunes, especially in the 
area between Cherry Creek and Holden. 

In the White Valley wind erosion has produced a fantastic hum- 
mocky topography (see p. 122), and in Snake Valley the wind has 
helped to build large knolls about some of the principal springs 
(see pp. 44--i5). 

MINOR BASINS. 

The Basin province contains a number of distinct and independent 
drainage systems that are separated from each other by divides 
formed by rocky ridges or low accumulations of alluvium. If a 
valley has an abundant water supply it may have an outlet through 
Avhich its streams discharge either continuously or at times of flood. 
Thus the north basin of Juab Valley discharges into Utah Valley, 
which discharges into Great Salt Lake. Thus the south basin of 
Juab Valley discharges into Little Valley and thence, through Sevier 
River, into Sevier Lake. Thus, too, at times of high water a part of 
Rush Lake Valley discharges into Escalante Desert. But where the 
water supply is meager or other conditions are less favorable, over- 
flow does not take place and the basin has a closed drainage. Such 
basins are formed, for example, by Parowan Valley, White Valley, 
and Lower Round Valley. 

The outlets of some of the valleys consist of canyons cut through 
rock walls, as, for example, Sevier Canyon, Avhicli leads from Little 
Valley to Sevier Desert; the canyon of Currant Creek, which forms 
the outlet of the northern part of Juab Valley; and the canyon of 
Chicken Creek, which forms the outlet of the southern part of Juab 
Valley. Some of these canyons do not occur at the lowest parts of 
the inclosing rim, but have been cut boldly through higher moun- 
tainous parts. They appear to be the work of streams Avhich flowed 
before the rock barriers were thrown up and Avhich pei*sisted in their 



14 GBOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

courses during the deformation by cutting down their channels as 
rapidly as the rocks w^re lifted. 

Hieroglyph Canyon, which is cut through the barrier between Paro- 
wan and Rush Lake valleys, and the channel that leads from Lower 
Round Valley to Little Valley were both obviously formed by run- 
ning water, though they are no longer occupied by streams, even in 
times of flood. In some of the other outlets the streams are so small 
and intermittent that they could scarcely have produced the canyons 
which they occupy. Doubtless when the climate was sufficiently 
humid to produce the large ancient lake all these gorges were trav- 
ersed by vigorous streams, but the date of their origin seems to be 
earlier. 

The north basin of Juab Valley, a part of the Old River Bed 
region, the region north and northwest of the McDowell Mountains, 
Fish Springs Valley, and a part of Snake Valley belong to the Great 
Salt Lake drainage basin. The south basin of Juab Valley, Little 
Valley, Tintic Valley and its mountain borders, a part of Sevier 
Desert, Lower Beaver Valley, a part of Wah Wah Valley and some 
of the high area farther west, and the Swasey Wash region belong to 
the Sevier Lake drainage. White Valley and Round Valley each 
forms a closed drainage basin ; Snake Valley contains several rather 
distinct drainage basins; and Sevier Desert, though nearly fiat, con- 
tains several depressions which are more or less independent of each 
other. Thus the swampy area in the vicinity of the Hot Springs 
north of Abraham does not normally drain into Sevier Lake, and the 
same seems to be true of certain ponds and swamps near Pavant 
Butte, of the swampy tract west of Holden, of Chalk Creek Sink, 
and of the bottoms farther south.- 

Parowan Valley, Escalante Desert, and parts of Rush Lake Valley 
form independent drainage basins, but a part of Rush Lake Valley is 
more or less tributary to Escalante Desert. 

The large number of independent basins is a result of arid condi- 
tions. In the dry seasons a drainage system becomes dismembered, 
the water from different parts terminating in insignificant local de- 
pressions; when more humid conditions return, these local depres- 
sions quickly fill with water and overflow, thus reuniting the drain- 
age from different parts into a single system. In the past the over- 
flowing and uniting process continued until practically all of this 
area discharged its waters into the ancient lake, and hence belonged 
to a single drainage basin. At last the ancient lake itself overflowed 
(pp. 16-18) and for a time the entire region became tributary to the 
Pacific Ocean. If humid conditions had continued long enough, 
the outlet would have been cut so low that the lake would have been 
drained completely, and by a similar process the minor depressions 
would also have been drained. 



GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 15 

GEOLOGY/ 

FORMATIONS. 

The rocks exposed in the large area here considered probably range 
in age from pre-Cambrian to Eecent. 

The rocks supposed to be pre-Cambrian consist mainly of granite 
and are found in only a few localities. 

The Paleozoic formations include a great thickness of apparently 
conformable beds which consist chiefly of quartzites and indurated 
dark-gra}^ limestones of Cambrian and Carboniferous age. The 
Basin ranges are composed of these rocks. 

Above the quartzites and limestones are several thousand feet of 
highly colored clastic beds which belong to the Permian series of the 
Carboniferous, and to the Triassic and Jurassic systems. They are 
best exposed in the plateau in eastern Iron County, but are not confined 
to this region. Above the Jurassic is a succession of Upper Cretaceous 
shales and sandstones, which have a grayish appearance and aggre- 
gate several thousand feet in thickness. Like the Jurassic, they are 
best de\'eloped in eastern Iron Count}^, but are also found farther 
north. Beds of gypsum occur in the Jurassic and coal in the Cre- 
taceous. 

At higher horizons are found early Tertiary conglomerates, sand- 
stones, shales, and limestones of nonmarine origin. In Iron County 
they rest on the Cretaceous beds ; but in the Canyon Range, in parts 
of the Pavant Range, and in the low ridges east of these, sand- 
stones and conglomerates presumably of Tertiary age rest with a 
pronounced unconformity on Paleozoic quartzites and limestones. 

Stream, lake, and wind deposits, consisting of relatively uncon- 
solidated gravel, sand, and clay, occur to great depths beneath the 
valleys and low desert tracts. These sediments were the last to be 
deposited and are late Tertiary, Pleistocene, and Recent in age. As 
there are few outcrops the relative importance of stream and lake 
sediments is largely a matter of conjecture. At the foot of the lofty 
mountains and plateaus in the eastern part of this region stream 
deposits and coarse beach and delta deposits of local origin ])re- 
dominate, but far out in the deserts fine-grained lake sediments 
are present in large quantities. The smaller Basin ranges furnish 
only meager amounts of rock waste. In some places, as at the north 
end of Fish Springs Range, they are partly buried beneath the lake 
flat and are nearly devoid of alluvial slopes. The Xeels and Goss rail- 
road wells, in Lower Beaver Valley, are near the Cricket Mountains, 
yet they reveal sections consisting almost exclusively of fine sediments 

1 The brief sketch here given is chiefly summarized from the works of the geologists who 
have studied the region, especially the (Jeology of the High Plateaus of Utah, by C. E. 
Dutton : U. S. Geog. and Geol. Survey Rocky Mtn. Region, 1880. 



16 GKOUND WATEKS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

such as would settle to the bottom of a lake at some distance from 
the shore from which they are derived. (See pp. 98-100 and PI. III.) 
Volcanic rocks are widely distributed over this region. They are 
all or nearly all younger than the early Tertiary strata, upon which 
they rest in many places. They belong chiefly to the later epochs of 
the Tertiary period, but are in part coeval with the ancient lake and 
in part still more recent. 

GEOLOGIC HISTORY,. 

Paleozoic formations containing marine fossils occur generally in 
this region, and it is therefore certain that during at least a part of 
the Paleozoic era the region was covered by the sea. Mesozoic and 
Tertiary formations are strongly developed in the plateaus and in 
some of the ranges near the Plateau province, but they are absent 
over most of the Basin province. It has therefore been inferred that 
most of the Basin province emerged from the sea before the Mesozoic 
and Tertiary sediments were deposited. 

Throughout the Basin province the Paleozoic formations have been 
faulted and tilted to produce the Basin ranges. It is not known at 
what time these faulting movements began, but fresh scarps on the 
alluvial slopes of some of the ranges, as, for example, in the vicinity 
of Fish Springs,^ show that they are still in progress. 

In the Colob Plateau, in eastern Iron County, the great thickness 
of Permian and Mesozoic strata that intervenes between the earlier 
Carboniferous and Tertiary rocks indicates sedimentation during 
much of the interval which they represent, but the fact that in the 
Canyon Range and adjacent mountains Tertiary deposits rest directly 
on the eroded and irregular surface of the early Carboniferous or 
the older Paleozoic rocks indicates that erosion was here taking place 
during much of the time that sedimentation was in progress in the 
Colob Plateau region. 

After the early Tertiary sediments had been deposited the Plateau 
province was lifted bodily with reference to the Basin province, thus 
producing the escarpments that form the boundary between these 
two provinces. This relation is best shown in Iron County, where 
the tabular, though greatly dissected, Markagunt and Colob plateaus 
tower above the basins and low ranges to the west, separated from 
them by a profound fault and an imposing fault scarp known as the 
Hurricane Ledge. Farther north the boundary between the two 
provinces is less definite. The Pavant Range and the mountain mass 
east of Juab Valley have some of the characteristics of each province. 

In the Pleistocene epoch western Utah contained a large lake, 
which has been fully described by G. K. Gilbert,^ who named it Lake 

1 Gilbert, G. K., Lake Bonneville : Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 1, 1890, p. 353. 
- Lake Bonneville : Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 1, 1890. The description of Lake 
Bonneville in this paper is largely abstracted from Mr. Gilbert's monograph. 



T. 33S. T. SA-S. T.35S. T. 36S. T. 37S. T. 36 S. 




GEOLOGY. 



17 



Bonneville.^ At the time of its niMximum extent this lake covered 
an area of 19,750 square miles and was 340 miles long, measured in a 
straight line, 145 miles wide, and 1,050 feet in maximum depth. Its 
surface was about 5,200 feet above the present sea level, or about 




LEGEND 



®PAR0WAN 

I ' 



Cedar Cityl 




Provo stage 



Additional area in 
Bonneville stage 



soMiles 



Figure 2. — Map of Juab, Millard, Beaver, and Iron counties, Utah, showing areas covered 
by Lake Bonneville. (After G. K. Gilbert, Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 1, 1890.) 

1,000 feet above the present level of Great Salt Lake. Its shore line 
had many irregularities, and, exclusive of the islands, had a total 
length of about 2,550 miles. Promontories, peninsulas, islands, bays, 
and straits existed in abundance, for the Basin ranges were con- 

lU. S. Geog. and Geol. Surveys W. 100th Mer, [Wheeler Survey], vol. 2, 1875, p. 88. 
90398°— wsp 277—11 2 



18 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

verted into rocky peninsulas and islands, and the intervening low 
areas into bays and straits. 

The main body of Lake Bonneville Avas north of Juab Countj^, 
covering Great Salt Lake Desert, but at its highest stage approxi- 
mately 5,000 square miles, or one-fourth of its total area, lay within 
the three counties here considered. If the lake existed at present 
Deseret would be covered by 600 feet of water; Nephi, Oak City, 
Holden, Fillmore, and Kanosh would be at ,or near the shore, while 
Joy and Utah Mine would be situated on islands. The outline of 
the lake when it stood highest (knoAvn as the Bonneville stage) is 
shown in figure 2. 

When the lake reached the Bonneville stage it found an outlet 
toward the north at a point where several hundred feet of unce- 
mented alluvium rested on indurated limestone. The outflowing 
stream rapidly swept away the alluvium and as rapidly lowered the 
lake level; but when it reached the limestone downward cutting 
progressed very slowly and the lake consequently stood at virtually 
one level for a long period. This long period is known as the Provo 
stage, and the prominent shore line formed at this time is known as 
the Provo shore line. At the Provo stage the lake stood about 375 
feet lower than at the Bonneville stage, but it still covered a large 
part of Sevier Desert, Fish Springs Valley, and White Valley, as 
is shown in figure 2. Eventually, when more arid conditions re- 
turned, the lake fell below the level of its outlet and shrank little by 
little until it dwindled to its present insignificant dimensions. More 
or less distinct shore lines were formed at a number of levels, but the 
two that can generally be recognized in the area here considered, and 
that are significant in discussing ground water conditions, are those 
that mark the Bonneville and Provo levels. 

Volcanic activity began on a grand scale in the Tertiary period 
and has continued almost to the present day. Some of the lava was 
extruded so recently that it remains almost untouched by the weather. 

RAINFALL. 

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION. 

Rainfall observations have been made for the United States 
Weather Bureau at the stations in Juab, Millard, and Iron counties as 
shown in the following table. 

Rainfall data are comparatively abundant for the belt adjacent to 
the Plateau province, but are meager for the large desert area com- 
prising the greater part of these counties, and are entirely wanting 
for the lofty mountain regions. 



RAINFALL. 19 

Precipitation {in inchen) in Juab, Millard, and Iron counties, Utah. 





Station. 


Years. 


Ncphi. 


Levan. 


Scipio. 


Oak City. 


Fillmore. 


Black 
Rock. 


Deseret. 


1891 
















1892 















9.47 


1893 




15. 75 
17.73 
26.12 
12.37 
16.79 
15.67 
17. 43 
10.34 
13. 31 
12.49 
12.58 
16.26 

16. 24 
23. 84 
20.09 
18.22 


;; ; 




15.59 
13. 37 
16.36 
11.16 
17.04 
14. 59 
14.48 
9: .32 
12. 8S 
11.90 
11.97 
12.14 
16. 16 
21.28 
17.14 
18. 43 




7 6(' 


1894 . . - 






8.01 


1895 ' 










189G 




13. 62 
19.24 




1 


1897 






1 . 


1898 






1 


1899 


15.52 
6.92 
12.69 
11.75 
11.01 
12.58 
21.13 
19.99 
18.03 
15.97 








1900 









5 38 


1901 






7.61 
6.38 
13. 36 
6.39 


9.01 


1902 






4.85 


1903 






6 99 


1904 






7.14 


1905 


14.62 
22.34 
18.00 
16.84 




9 76 


]90() 


19.05 
14.24 




11.77 


1907 




9 64 


1908 
















16.58 


14.87 




14.61 


8.43 


8.15 













Station. 


Years. 


Callao and 
Trout 
Creek. 1 


Garrison. 


Parowan. ^edar 


Lund and 
Enter- 
prise.2 


Modena. 


1891 






14.24 
11.00 
12.80 
12.97 
12,07 

9.17 
18.47 
13.82 
10.92 

7.04 
11.05 

9.02 
11.89 
11.32 
13.47 
20.87 
13. 73 
11.80 






1892 












1893 












1894 













1895 












1896. 












1897 -. 












1898 












1899 












1900 












1901 










9 24 


1902 - 










5.09 


1903. 




4.75 
7.21 
8.82 




9.36 


6 93 


1904 


7.77 




9.83 


1905.. . . 




12 39 


1906 


12.34 
8.28 




19.06 


1907 


4.35 


16. 16 
13 73 




12 80 


1908. 


Ifi Q7 


16 62 












Average 




6.28 


12.54 


1 


11.50 






■ 1 





1 Callao in 1904; Trout Creek In 1906 and 1907. 2 Lund in 1903: Enterprise in 1908. 

These records show the heaviest rainfall in the valleys at the foot 
of the lofty mountains and plateaus along the east margin of the 
region and much lighter rainfall in the extensive desert area to the 
west. Thus the average annual precipitation is 16.58 inches at 
Levan, 14.87 inches at Scipio, and 14.61 inches at Fillmore, but only 
8.15 and 8.43 inches, respectively, at Deseret and Black Rock, and 
only 6.28 inches at Garrison. Apparently the semiarid conditions 
found at Levan, Scipio, and Fillmore exist over a relatively small 
area, while the truly arid climate indicated at Deseret, Black Rock, 
and Garrison prevails over the greater part of the region. 
. Though no observations are recorded for the loft}^ mountains and 
plateaus, the character of their forests and other vegetation makes it 



20 



GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 



evident that they have more precipitation than the lowlands. This 
is true of the Wasatch Mountains, the San Pitch Mountains, and the 
Canyon and Pavant ranges, in eastern Juab and Millard counties; 



Annual precipitation (inches) 





























/ 
/ 

/ 
/ 

/ 


\ 


> 


















1 




1 
1 


\ 


















1 
J 


/ ---^ 


"% 




^^ 












/ 


/ 

/ 

/ 


,,'"' 


_^^ 


















^^ 


^^ 






















y / 


J> 


^ / 
/ 
/ 
















/ 
/ 


/ \ 


\/ 

A 
/' \ 














1 
1 
1 

1 J 




X 


,^'''^' 


^ 














"^^t 


M 




X 
















,^y^ 


2^ 

/ 




/ 
















\\ 


\^ 




















'S 






\ 


^ 














\ 






\ 


■-- 


--. 


~^-^^ 
















\ 
\ 
\ 
\ 




=^ 


\,^ 


/ 








/ 




/ 


/ 
/ 
/ 
/ 




^<^ 






^ 












/ 


K 




/ / 









RAINFALL. 



21 



Average monthly precipitation (inches) 



of the Colob and Markagunt plateaus, in eastern Iron County; of 
the Deep Creek Eange, in western Juab County; and to some extent 
of the AVest Tintic 
and other moun- 
tains. But the dry 
and barren condi- 
tion of most of the 
lo^Y Basin ranges 
indicates that these 
ranges receive little 
more rainfall than 
t h c surrounding 
desert. 

ANNUAL VARIATION. 

The precipitation 
varies greatly from 
year to j^ear. Thus 
the recorded range 
is between 26.12 
and 10.34 inches at 
Levan, between 
21.13 and 6.92 
inches at Scipio, 
between 21.28 and 
9.32 inches at Fill- 
more, between 11.77 
and 4.85 inches at 
Desert, between 
20.87 and 7.04 
inches at Parowan, 
and between 19.06 
and 5.09 inches at 
Mod en a. 

In general these 
variations are re- 
gional rather than 
local, as shown by 
figure 3, in which 
there appears a 
general agreement 
between the curves 
of the different sta- 
tions. At all sta- 
tions where observations were made the precipitation in 1900 was 




22 GKOUND WATEES IN WESTERN UTAH. 

below the average, and at all but one it was the lowest recorded. In 
1906 the precipitation was everywhere above the average, and at all 
but two stations it was the highest ever recorded. For the region 
as a whole, the precipitation was below the average in 1896 and 
above the average in 1897, after which it decreased each year until 
1900. From 1901 to 1904 it was somewhat higher than in 1900, but 
still below the average. In 1905 it was slightly above the average; 
in 1906 it was exceptionally high ; and in 1907 and 1908 it was some- 
what lower than in 1906, but still well above the average. 

Though the variations from year to year are for the most part 
regional, yet some remarkable local variations occur, as for example, 
in 1903 the rainfall at Black Eock was heavier than at Levan or any 
other station. 

SEASONAL VARIATION. 

The precipitation is distributed unequally through the year, as is 
shown by figure 4, in which, for each station having a sufficiently 
long record, the average for each month is represented. In Juab and 
Millard counties the most rain falls in the months of March, April, 
and May, and the least in June and July. In Iron County (Parowan 
and Modena) the distribution is somewhat different, the spring rain- 
fall being relatively less and the late summer rainfall distinctly 
greater. In this respect climatic conditions in Iron County to some 
extent resemble those in New Mexico and Arizona, where the princi- 
pal rainy season is in the latter part of the summer.^ 

RELATION OF RAINFALL TO DRY FARMING. 

Until recentl}^ farmers have relied almost entirely on irrigation, 
but in the last few years many attempts have been made to raise 
crops without artificial application of water. Dry farms conducted 
on a large scale have been established in Juab, Dog, Little, and 
Pavant valleys, and in the southeastern part of Escalante Desert, 
and dry farming on a smaller scale has been undertaken in the other 
valleys along the east side of the region, and even in the vicinity of 
Deseret and at Ibex, west of Sevier Lake. In Juab Valley good 
crops of wheat have been raised without irrigation ; ^ in the other 
localities dry farming was stilh largely in the experimental stage in 
1908, when the region was visited. The weather data show that 
Levan,- in Juab Valley, receives a little more rainfall than the sta- 
tions in the other valleys along the east side, and much more than 
those in the desert to the west. They also show that the region in 

1 Henry, A. J., Climatology of the United States : U. S. Weather Bureau, Bull. Q, 1906, 
p. 50. 

2 See Farrell, F. D., Dry-land grains in the Great Basin : Circular 61, Bur. Plant 
Industry, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1910. 



RAINFALL. 23 

general received more than an average amount of rainfall during 
1906, 1907, and 1908. 

SOIL. 

This region contains much more arable land than can be irrigated 
with the suppl}^ of water that is now available or that would be 
available if all the water resources were fully developed and con- 
served. Nevertheless, the arable land comprises only a fraction of 
the total area. It does not include the mountain regions, the lava 
fields, the gravelly upper portions of the alluvial slopes or bench 
lands, the sand}^ dune-covered belts, nor the low, swampy tracts. The 
best agricultural land is found on the middle portions of the alluvial 
slopes, below the zone of the coarse gravel and above the alkali. 

The soil of the low tracts is almost everywhere impregnated with 
harmful quantities of alkali. The surface water coming from the 
higher regions accumulates in these low tracts and the water that 
sinks into the ground on the higher lands returns to the surface here, 
both to be disposed of by evaporation. In their contact with the 
earth both surface and ground waters take up small quantities of 
soluble mineral matter (alkalies), which they leave behind when 
they evaporate. Hence, b}^ a slow but long-continued process the 
soluble substances disseminated through the soil and rocks of the 
upland regions become concentrated in the lowlands until they exist 
in amounts injurious to ordinary plants. 

The character of the vegetation and in many places the incrustations 
at the surface show that the low central axes of nearly all the valleys 
and the extensive low flats of Great Salt Lake Desert, Sevier Desert, 
and Escalante Desert have alkali soils. Even in valleys that have 
outlets, such as Juab Valley, Little Valley, and parts of Rush Lake 
Valley, the discharge is so sluggish and (except in Little Valley) so 
intermittent and the evaporation is comparatively so great that alkali 
has accumulated. The largest tracts of alkali soil are the desert flats 
which for a long time were covered by the waters of a salt lake and 
which lie so low that in some places the ground water still comes 
to the surface and evaporates. In the detailed descriptions of Sevier 
Desert, Wah Wah Valley, and Escalante Desert analyses of soil from 
several localities are given. (See pp. 109-110, 118, and 150-151.) 

The fertile land in most localities lies so high that some of the 
water available for irrigation can not be brought to it without pump- 
ing. In order to utilize this water, low land is cultivated and 
consequently the presence of alkali becomes a source of trouble. 
This trouble is perhaps greatest on the low flat in the vicinity of 
Deseret, where water from Sevier River is used. Two remedies are 
here available, both of which are now under consideration. One is 
to install a drainage system, by means of which the alkali can be 



24 GROUND WATEKS IN" WESTERN UTAH. 

washed out of the soil ; the other is to divert the water so far upstream 
that it can be conducted by gravity to higher and better land. 

Outside of Sevier Desert the principal difficulties with alkali are 
experienced where irrigation is attempted with water from springs 
or wells. A number of large springs in Snake Valley and Fish 
Springs Valley, the large springs near Clear Lake, and many smaller 
springs and seeps in Pavant and other valleys are used for irrigation, 
but the crops produced are insignificant when compared with the 
amount of water applied, the difficulty being that the water issues 
at low levels, where the soil contains alkali. Likewise nearly all the 
wells in which the water rises to the surface or nearly to the surface 
are on low ground, and irrigation with well water is generally accom- 
panied by trouble with alkali. 

VEaETATION. 

The native vegetation is an index to the character of the soil and 
climate of the region. 

The mountains and plateaus that are high enough to receive a 
copious fall of rain and snow are covered with forests of yellow pine, 
fir, quaking asp, birch, maple, cottonwood, scrub oak, and other trees 
and shrubs ; but the arid Basin ranges and volcanic buttes and mesas 
support few trees, except stunted conifers such as scrub cedar, juniper, 
and pihon pine, and the broad valleys and deserts are treeless, except 
for clumps of cedar and piiion on the upper parts of some of the 
•alluvial slopes, a few dwarfed willows in the vicinity of springs, and 
cottonwoods or other species planted in the irrigated oases. 

On the alluvial slopes of the valleys in the eastern part of these 
counties, large and luxuriant sagebrush {Artemisia tridentat a) pre- 
dominates, and along dry runs, where it receives a comparatively 
plentiful water supply, without being subjected to alkali or swampy 
conditions, this brush grows to treelike proportions. 

Farther west the more arid climate is clearly reflected in the more 
scanty vegetation, the large sagebrush being replaced by stunted indi- 
viduals and by smaller species. Here the bush known as shadscale 
becomes common, and in many localities it is dominant. 

In extensive low tracts, where the climate is arid and the soil con- 
tains alkali, but where the ground water is near the surface, grease- 
wood is present almost to the exclusion of other plants. Under 
favorable conditions the greasewood rivals in size the most luxuriant 
sagebrush, and where it is well watered its rich green aspect contrasts 
strongly with the monotonous grayish-green hue which the sage and 
shadscale give to most of this country. In localities where there is 
some natural irrigation but where the soil does not contain excessive 
quantities of alkali greasewood may be supplanted by rabbit brush; 
in areas having an alkali soil, but greater depth to water, it is likely 



STREAMS. 25 

to give way to shadscale; and in swampy districts heavily impreg- 
nated with alkali it yields to saltbrush. 

Forage grasses grow on the Avell-watered mountains and plateaus 
and in meager quantities on the more arid Basin ranges and in the 
valleys and deserts. Swampy areas watered by springs and seeps 
may produce a large growth of grass, which, however, is poor in 
quality. Some forage is also supplied by a small plant locally known 
as black sage and by greasewood and other bushes. The entire region 
is placed under tribute for grazing, though the number of acres nec- 
essary to feed one animal is large. Horses and cattle are raised, but 
most of the range, especially the driest part, is used for sheep. In 
the summer most of the sheep are kept on the high plateaus, but in 
the winter they are brought into the desert. 

Cacti occur in this region, but are not abundant. They are found 
in the largest numbers in southern Iron County. Tules or other 
rushes grow at the margins of some of the springs, and water-cress 
thrives in the large springs and their effluent streams, es])ecially in 
Snake Valley. The Hot Springs near Fish Springs and the Hot 
Springs in the River Bed region support Alimentary algse of various 
colors. 

In the low parts of some of the deserts and valleys there are exten- 
sive alkali clay flats that are destitute of vegetation of any kind. 
These flats remain intensely dry for long periods, but are occasionally 
inundated, and it seems that none of the desert plants can adapt 
themselves to such extremes. 

STREAMS. 

Sevier River is the only large stream that enters this region. It 
rises on the plateaus of Iron and Kane counties and flows northward 
a long distance through a structural trough that lies just beyond the 
eastern boundary of Iron, Beaver, and Millard counties. Eventually 
it turns to the west, crosses into Juab County, traverses Little Valley, 
and escapes through Sevier Canyon, at Leamington, into the desert, 
across which it meanders to Sevier Lake. Much of the water is 
diverted for irrigation before the river reaches the region described 
in this paper, but a part is used by the settlements in Sevier Desert 
and a part still escapes into Sevier Lake, where it evaporates. 

Many small disconnected streams rise in the highlands along the 
eastern border of these counties, descend with steep gradients through 
rock-bound canyons, and emerge on the arable alluvial slopes, 
where their Avaters are used for irrigation. During the spring months 
they are supplied largely by the melting of snow at high alti- 
tudes and their flow is therefore relatively copious. Later in the 
season, when all or nearly all of the snow has disappeared, they 
shrink greatly and the smallest creeks become dry. The streams that 



26 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

head in the highest mountains are fed from melting snow until late 
in the summer, but those that drain less lofty ranges and plateaus 
dwindle long before the crops mature. Heavy rains may fall at any 
time and give rise to swollen, torrential streams that rush down the 
canyons and across the alluvial slopes. If storage facilities could be 
provided whereby the flow of these streams could be controlled and 
the water they discharge each year could be applied to crops when 
needed, much more land could be irrigated. Unfortunately neither 
the narrow canyons with their steep grades nor the open alluvial 
slopes afford good reservoir sites, and little has been accomplished in 
the way of storing water. 

The areas receiving these small mountain streams are Juab Valley, 
in Juab County, Round Valley and the areas west of the Canyon and 
Pavant ranges, in Millard County, and Parowan and Rush Lake val- 
leys, in Iron County. The Wasatch Mountains and San Pitch Moun- 
, tains give rise to streams that flow into Juab Valley, the largest of 
these being Salt Creek, which emerges at Nephi. The Canyon Range 
is drained chiefly toward the west and on the west side rise sev- 
eral streams, the largest of which is Oak Creek. The west flank of 
the Pavant Range is drained by numerous streams, among which 
Chalk Creek and Corn Creek are the largest. The streams originat- 
ing on its east flank all flow into Sevier Valley, except Ivie Creek, 
which rises at the head of Upper Round Valley and furnishes the 
irrigation water at Scipio. The high plateau in eastern Iron County 
gives rise to a series of streams that discharge into Parowan and 
Rush Lake valleys, the largest being Parowan Creek and Coal Creek. 
Further statements in regard to these streams will be found in the 
detailed descriptions. 

In the remaining parts of these three counties there are only a few 
small streams. In Juab County, Cherry Creek, Judd Creek, and sev- 
er.al still smaller streams rise in the West Tintic and Simpson moun- 
tains, and a number of creeks flow from both sides of the Deep Creek 
Range, but in the area intervening between the Simpson and Deep 
Creek mountains, covering a stretch fully 50 miles long, there are no 
streams except such as flow from the Fish Springs. In Millard 
County the only streams between Sevier River and the Nevada line 
are a few creeks that flow into Snake Valley from the west. The 
highlands south of Iron County give rise to Shoal, Meadow, and 
Pinto creeks, which flow toward Escalante Desert, and the Iron 
Mountains give rise to several small creeks, but the entire north- 
central and northwestern sections of Iron County are destitute of 
streams. 

INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. 

The region under consideration supports a population of about 
20,000 people, or approximately IJ persons per square mile. But the 



INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. 27 

geographic controls of human existence and industrial development 
are so rigorous that the inhabitants are very unequally distributed, 
and any statement of average density of population has little sig- 
nificance. The two impoi-tant controlling factors are (1) water for 
irrigation and (2) ore deposits. 

Most of the inhabitants live at the foot of the highlands along the 
east margin of the region and depend on the numerous small streams 
that issue from these highlands. There is a settlement at the mouth 
of nearly every canyon that has a stream, and the size of the stream 
is a good index to the size of the settlement, or vice versa. Rela- 
tively large streams, such as Salt Creek, Chalk Creek, Corn Creek, 
Parowan Creek, and Coal Creek, support large settlements, such as 
Nephi, Fillmore, Kanosh, Parowan, and Cedar. Smaller streams, 
such as Oak Creek, Summit Creek, Shirts Creek, and Kanarra Creek, 
support smaller settlements, such as Oak City, Summit, Hamiltons 
Fort, and Kanarraville. Very small streams, such as Little Salt 
Creek, Fools Creek, and Cove Creek, support only a few families or 
a single ranch each. In some places, as at Holden, the water from 
several streams is led to one settlement, or farmers live in settlements 
at some distance from their fields and water supply. 

Next m agricultural importance to the settlements just described 
are the communities and ranches that depend on water from Sevier 
Kiver, including Leamington, the Mclntyre ranch at the station of 
Mack, Burtner, Oasis, Deseret, Hinkley , Abraham, and the Swan 
Lake farm. Next to these in importance are the communities and 
ranches in Snake Valle}' , including Burbank, Garrison, a series of 
ranches between Garrison and Trout Creek, two ranches at Trout 
Creek, and three ranches at Callao. 

The rest of the region, comprising by far the largest area, is so 
nearly destitute of water supplies that it contains only a few widely 
scattered ranches, most of Avhich depend, in Avhole or in part, upon 
live stock raised on the range. Ranches of this kind are Mclntyre's 
ranch in Tintic Valley ; Rockw^ell's ranch, on Cherry Creek ; Laird's 
ranch, at Joy; Thomas's ranch, at Fish Springs; James's ranch, at 
Black Rock; the Clear Lake farm, at Clear Lake station; Ward's 
ranch, at Rush Lake; and Duncan's ranch, McConnell's ranch, and 
the Church ranch, in or near the Iron Mountains. 

Agricultural establishments of another type that should be men- 
tioned, although they include few permanent settlers, are the large 
dry farms such as the Utah Arid farm in Dog Valley, and the Juab 
Development Co. farm in Little Valley. 

Approximately one-fourth of the inhabitants of the region are 
found in mining camps and are dependent in some way on the min- 
ing industry. The great majority of these are in the Tintic mining 



28 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

district, but there are small camps at Pish Springs and Joy, in Juab 
County, and at Stateline, in Iron County, and prospectors are scat- 
tered through the region. Ore deposits are of course located without 
reference to the present occurrence of water, and the problem of pro- 
viding a water supply for mines and mining communities may be 
difficult, as it proved to be in the Tintic district. The mining indus- 
try has an important influence on agriculture by creating a demand 
for agricultural products. 

The main line of the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake Kail- 
road passes diagonally through this region. Along its entire course, 
however, it is at some distance from the villages on the east side, 
its route having been determined by the location of mines and by 
engineering considerations. A branch line passes through Juab Val- 
ley, but the villages in the eastern parts of Millard and Iron counties 
are remote from any railroad connections. This position of the rail- 
road has brought a certain amount of human life and activity into 
a desolate desert tract. Oasis, Clear Lake, Black Rock, Lund, and 
Modena have only a few inhabitants, but they are the supply points 
for nearly the entire region except eastern Juab County. Inci- 
dentally, this position of the railroad required a water supply in the 
desert tracts and resulted in valuable underground explorations. 

The uninhabited condition of a large portion of these counties can 
best be shown by an example. In that part of Millard County which 
lies between Black Rock and the Sevier Desert settlements on the 
east and Snake Valley on the west the only inhabitants are two men, 
who are at Ibex a part of the time. Yet this is a region of diversified 
topography, 50 miles wide and 65 miles long, comprising about one- 
half of Millard County, and is as large as Rhode Island and Dela- 
ware combined. Its only product of economic value is a scanty 
growth of forage plants, which are picked up by flocks of sheep 
brought thither in the winter season. 

The physical conditions and natural resources of the region are 
distributed in a way that has resulted in producing three types of 
communities whose people have important differences in character 
and mode of life; these are the irrigation settlements, the isolated 
ranches, and the mining towns. The irrigation settlements were 
founded long ago by the Mormons, and the inhabitants have been 
powerfully influenced by geographic conditions. Their sociability 
and hospitality, their simple habits and elemental morals, and their 
spirit of contentment and general lack of commercial enterprise have 
no doubt been in large part engendered by the physical conditions 
that threw them into small, compact, isolated communities, having a 
comparatively secure livelihood but rigid limitations to industrial 
expansion. 



GROUND WATERS IN WEiSTERN UTAH. 29 

OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER. 
BEDROCK. 
WATER IN SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. 

The indurated rocks comprise limestone, quartzite, cono^lomerate. 
sandstone, and shale. The qnartzite and hard ^ray limestone of 
Paleozoic age are widely distributed, but the conglomerates, sand- 
stones, and shales of younger systems are found mainly along the 
east margin — in the mountains east of Juab Valley, in the Valley 
Range and the ridges on both sides of Chicken Creek, in the Canyon 
and Pavant ranges, in the high plateaus east of Parowan and Rush 
Lake valleys, in the low range west of Parowan Valley, in the Iron 
iMountains, and in the highlands farther southwest. 

The body of the Paleozoic quartzite and limestone is compact and 
impervious, but small quantities of Avater penetrate these rocks 
through joints and fracture zones; the sandstones and conglomerates, 
v/here not too firmly cemented, carry water in the pore spaces; the 
shale beds contain little water. 

If the indurated sedimentary rocks had a favorable topographic 
attitude the,y would no doubt furnish moderate supplies of Avater in 
many localities, but their attitude is almost everywhere unfavorable 
for recovering water by sinking wells into them. On the uplands 
the water that seeps into these rocks is likely to be returned to the 
snrface where the strata outcrop or to penetrate to great depths; on 
the lowlands the bed rock is buried beneath such thick accumulations 
of unconsolidated sediments that it can in most places be reached 
only b}^ very deep drilling. As a result of these conditions little 
water is obtained from the indurated seclimentar}^ rocks except such 
as issues in mountain springs, and but few attempts have been made 
to procure sujDplies by drilling into these formations. 

In the Tintic mining district, in the East Tintic Mountains, a num- 
ber of shafts have been sunk through Paleozoic limestone to depths 
of 1,500 to 2,260 feet, or several hundred feet below the water level 
in the unconsolidated sediments of the adjacent Tintic Valley, with- 
out finding any water, and one or two deep mines have encountered 
small amounts of water at levels considerabl}^ below the Avater level 
in the valley. 

In the Utah mine, Avhich is situated near the north end of the Fish 
Springs Range and is developed mainly in Paleozoic limestone, no 
water was found until the workings reached the 800-foot level, which 
is lower than the Fish Springs and the ground-water table of the 
plain bordering the mountains. Even at this depth the supply is 
very small. 

In the valley north of Fillmore there is a low ridge consisting in 
part of quartzite and in part of deep red and blue shale and sand- 



30 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

stone — the same formations as are found in the Pavant Rangfe. It is 
nearly buried beneath unconsolidated sediments and forms one of 
the exceptional localities of this region in which the indurated sedi- 
mentary rocks are near the surface and yet not far above the general 
ground-water level. Here several wells have been sunk, the first to 
test for artesian water and the rest in search of oil. It appears that 
the rocks were found to contain considerable quantities of water 
which is of satisfactory quality and rises within a short distance of 
the surface. But even here the rocks apparently do not afford more 
favorable conditions than the unconsolidated sediments, and drilling 
in them is more expensive. 

Near the southern boundary of Iron County, in the vicinity of 
Enterprise, a test well, drilled to a depth of about TOO feet, is re- 
ported to have entered 400 feet of red rock. The rock here also con- 
tains water, but according to report it was less in quantity and lower 
in head than the water in the overlying beds of sand and gravel. 

In the southern part of Juab Valley, near the west ridge, which 
here consists of eastward dipping conglomerates, sandstones, and 
other rocks of probable early Tertiary age, a well was drilled to a 
depth of 620 feet, chiefly in rock. The first satisfactory supply 
found in this well was near the bottom, from which level the water 
rose to within 22 feet of the surface. 

WATER IN IGNEOUS ROCKS. 

The igneous rocks include ancient granite, Tertiar}^ intrusives and 
extrusives, largely of acidic or intermediate composition, and more 
recent volcanic material, chiefly basalt. The ancient granite lies at 
the surface in only a few mountainous districts, but it has been 
reached in deep drilling in Lower Beaver Valley and it no doubt 
exists far below the surface in other localities. Igneous rocks of 
Tertiary or more recent age occur in large quantities in the East 
Tintic Mountains, the Thomas Range, the buttes and mesas of Sevier 
Desert and of the southeastern part of Millard County, the moun- 
tains of eastern Beaver and Iron counties, the low ranges of western 
Iron County, and in other localities. 

The railroad wells at Goss and Neels are reported to have pene- 
trated granite at depths of 1,643 feet and 1,950 feet, respectively, and 
the Goss well is said to have found great quantities of salty water in 
crevices of this rock. It is, however, not probable that the granite 
would generally yield water even where it is within reach of the drill. 

The Tertiary igneous rocks are for the most part compact and im- 
pervious, but the mining developments in the Tintic district have 
shown that, at least in that locality, they are ramified by fracture 
zones which permit a slow seepage to depths of hundreds of feet but 



OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER. 31 

which are not open enough to allow the water to escape quickly, as 
in fractures in the limestone of the same district. The mines in the 
igneous rocks, none of which exceed a few hundred feet in depth, con- 
tain w^ater, but those in limestone are, dry or do not find water until 
they reach great depths. Moreover, mines that pass through igneous 
rocks into underlying limestone seem to lose their Avater when they 
enter the limestone. 

Near the surface the igneous rock disintegrates to form coarse- 
grained porous debris into ^vhich the water that falls as rain can 
penetrate. Since this debris rests on undecomposed igneous rock that 
is nearly or quite impervious, the ^vater is prevented from escaping 
downw^ard, and where the topography is such that it can not readily 
drain awa}^, it may accumulate and give rise to springs or seeps or 
afford a supply for shalloAv w^ells. 

The quantit}^ of water that can be obtained from the disintegrated 
mantle of the igneous rock or from the fracture zones that penetrate 
this rock to greater depths is invariably small, but it is nevertheless 
of great value in localities where no other water is available. In 
many places supplies from such a source can be increased by increas- 
ing the infiltering surface, either by digging more wells of large 
diameter or by constructing tunnels or infiltration galleries below 
the water level. Little or nothing can be accomplished by deep 
drilling. 

The most extensive developments of this kind have been made in 
the Tintic district, where the public supply for the city of Eureka, 
the supply for one of the railroads, and the supplies for a number of 
mines are obtained from pumping plants w^hich draw^ from the partly 
disintegrated igneous rock and the overlying rock waste. Supplies 
of this character have also been developed at Joy and elsewhere. 

A number of springs of fair size exist in those parts of the East 
Tintic Mountains in which the surface formation consists of igneous 
rock (PI. V), and the w^ater from some of them is conducted through 
pipe lines to Silver City, Jericho, and the Utah Arid farm. Small 
springs of similar character found in the low^ mountains of Avestern 
Iron County, w^here igneous rock underlies the surface debris, pro- 
vide valuable Avatering places for \i\e stock on the range. 

The more recent basaltic lavas are in ^lany places broken by joints 
and fissures, through which w^ater can pass freely and through wiiich 
it may escape at Ioav levels in large springs. Examples of groups of 
springs that appear to be of this type are the Black Rock Springs, the 
Clear Lake Springs, the Hot Springs north of Abraham, and the 
springs at Rush Lake, each of Avhich yields at least a second-foot of 
water. The Avell at Ward's ranch (near Rush Lake) also derives its 
water from a crevice in lava rock. 



32 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

CONFINING FUNCTION OF BEDROCK, 

For the region as a whole, the indurated rocks, both sedimentary 
and igneous, are not of much importance as water-bearing formations. 
Their chief value lies in their confining function in the basins which 
they form and which are partly filled with unconsolidated water- 
bearing sediments. The small perched basins may allow of so much 
leakage that their unconsolidated sediments are entirely drained, but 
the large basins, which are relatively depressed, although high above 
the level of the sea^ are sufficiently waterproof to cause the accumu- 
lation of water in the unconsolidated sediments. In this way the 
rock basins act as huge reservoirs whose supplies of water can easily 
be drawn upon in the lowland areas, and are, therefore, of great 
economic value. As the Tertiary igneous rocks are as a rule less 
permeable than the Paleozoic limestones, the basins underlain by 
them are more likely to contain water than those underlain by the 
limestones. 

UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS. 
CHARACTER OF SEDIMENTS. 

The sediments that partly fill the rock basins, thereby forming 
" valleys " and " deserts," are derived from the mountainous rims of 
these basins, where the firm rock is subjected to the destructive activi- 
ties of the weather. Ever since the great deformations which brought 
the basins into existence the rocks in the uplands have been disinte- 
grating at the surface and the resulting rock waste has been swept 
away, chiefly by torrential storm waters, and deposited in the low 
parts of the basins. Hence the serrate peaks and deep canyons and 
myriad of gullies with which the uplands are sculptured. Hence 
also the extensive smooth alluvial slopes and desert plains underlain 
by thick deposits of clay, sand, and gravel. 

The stream, lake, and wind deposits which fill the basins are here 
grouped under the collective name of " unconsolidated sediments " 
in order to differentiate them from the hard igneous rocks and the 
ancient indurated sedimentary formations which are together called 
" bedrock." It should, however, be understood that some of the 
stream, lake, and wind deposits have become firmly cemented, and 
that a certain amount of cementation has generally taken place, as 
is shown by the fact that dug wells are usually not cased above the 
water level. 

The unconsolidated sediments are by far the most valuable water- 
bearing beds of this region. Nevertheless, they are not good water 
producers in every locality nor at each horizon, the principal diffi- 
culties being (1) that they may be drained of their water, (2) that 
they may consist entirely of fine-grained materials which willnot 



OCCUERENCE OF GROUND WATER. 33 

surrender water freely, and (3) that the}^ may contain only salty 
water. 

WATER IN STREAM DEPOSITS. 

When a stream escapes from its canyon and its carrying power 
diminishes it drops the coarsest part of its load first and conveys the 
finest sediments farthest into the valley or desert. Hence the upper 
parts of the alluvial slopes consist largely of gravel and bowlders, 
and the parts most remote from the mouths of the canyons are under- 
lain by beds of clay and fine sand associated with little gravel and no 
bowlders. 

A swollen stream sweeping rapidly down a steep, narrow canyon 
can move great quantities of gravel and roll along large bowlders, 
and even on the alluvial slope it is able to carry the coarse parts of 
its load much farther than when it has only its normal size, bowlders 
being transported at times of flood to almost incredible distances 
from the mountains. Hence coarse sediments come to be superim- 
posed on fine sediments, and, in sinking a well, successive beds of 
clay, sand, gravel, and even bowlders will he encountered. 

Since the aggrading streams flowing over the alluvial slopes change 
their courses frequently, depositing debris now in one locality and 
now in another, the beds underlying these slopes are not contin- 
uous, and wells only a short distance apart may show entirely dif- 
ferent sections. 

In most localities the stream deposits include beds of sand and 
gravel that are capable of yielding water freely. As the distance 
from the mountains increases, the number and thickness of these 
beds decrease, their constituent particles become smaller, and their 
yield of water becomes correspondingly less copious; but fairly 
abundant supplies can generally be obtained even in the vallev flats. 
The principal difficulty in connection with the stream deposits is 
that in the upper parts of the alluvial slopes the porous beds are 
drained to great depths, in some places even to the bedrock. 

WATER IN LAKE DEPOSITS. 

Since the conditions of sedimentation are much more uniform at 
the bottom of a lake than on an alluvial slope, the lake beds are more 
continuous and regular than the stream deposits, and wells in the 
same vicinity have nearly the same sections. In the quiet waters of 
a lake the gravel and sand brought by streams sink near the shore 
and only very small particles that stay long in suspension reach 
points remote from the shore. Hence lake deposits are likely to 
consist so largely of beds of clay and fine-grained quicksand that 
they will yield only meager supplies of water. Especially is this 
condition imminent near the center of extensive lake beds such as 
90398°— wsp 277—11 3 



34 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

Great Salt Lake Desert and Sevier Desert. Salt is likely to be 
deposited in lakes that have no outlet, and the ground water found 
in the lake sediments may therefore be saline. Both of these unfa- 
vorable conditions are encountered in this region. 

WATER IN LOW VALLEYS. 

A typical valley of this region consists of a rock trough partly 
filled with sediments so disposed as to form alluvial slopes on each 
side with a central flat between. Stream deposits underlie the 
alluvial slopes but lake deposits may occur at the center. In many 
valleys the sediments are saturated to the level of the central flat. 
As new supplies of water are poured out from the mountains and 
absorbed by the porous gravel of the alluvial slopes the amount of 
ground water is increased and some of it returns to the surface in 
the lowest parts of the central flat, either in springs or by impercep- 
tible capillary action, and is removed by evaporation, or, less com- 
monly, flows out of the valley through a drainage outlet. (See fig. 5.) 
On the central flat and the lower parts of the alluvial slopes the 
ground water is therefore near the surface and can easily be ob- 
tained by sinking wells into the unconsolidated sediments. 

The most favorable location for wells is at the base of an alluvial 
slope where the surface is not far above the ground-water level but 
where coarse water-bearing beds are still plentiful, on the side of 
the valley bordered by the mountains which furnish the most water, 
and in the vicinity of the largest streams. The wells in the flats 
generally yield less freely. 

Juab Valley, Parowan Valley, and Kush Lake Valley are typical 
of the kind of valleys just described. Their sediments are satu- 
rated to a level controlled by their central flats, and the best wells 
are obtained near the base of the east slopes, which receive the prin- 
cipal water supplies. Pavant Valley (Holden to Kanosh), Little 
Valley, Tintic Valley, and Snake Valley are also of this type, though 
somewhat modified. Each has one or more low tracts along the 
central axis, where the ground water is returned to the surface, show- 
ing the saturated condition of the sediments below the level of these 
tracts. 

WATER ON DESERT FLATS. 

The deserts, like the valleys, are surrounded by alluvial slopes 
which descend from the upland borders, but they differ from the 
valleys in having more extensive central flats with a more important 
development of lake deposits. At the base of the alluvial slopes the 
conditions are not unlike those found in the valleys, as is illustrated 
by the wells at Callao, in western Juab County, and those in the 
vicinity of Enterprise and New Castle, in Iron County. The des- 
ert flats, like the valley flats, lie so low that the ground-water level 



OCCURRENCE OF GROUND WATER. 35 

is near the surface, but they differ from the valley flats in being un- 
derlain more largely by non-water-bearing clay and quicksand and by 
beds that make the water salty. 

Sevier Desert includes the Lynn bench and the adjacent low flat 
(PL I). The Lynn bench is a relatively level upland tract formed 
essentially as the delta of Sevier River in the Provo stage of Lake 
Bonneville. It consists largely of sandy and gravelly material which 
absorbs much of the rainfall. At Lynn a successful well was drilled 
by the railroad company, and good wells could probably be obtained 
on most parts of the bench. As at Lynn, however, the water level is 
probably everywhere at some distance below the surface. 

At Deseret and the other settlements on the flat near the base of 
this bench many successful wells have been drilled. Here the sedi- 
ments consist chiefly of clay and include very little gravel, but there 
are numerous beds of sand, all of which are charged with water that 
rises nearly to the surface or a little above the surface. The principal 
source of supply is evidently the Lynn bench. 

Farther southwest, at greater distances from the bench, conditions 
rapidly become more unfavorable for ground-water supplies. The 
proportion of clay becomes greater, the sand becomes finer, and the 
water becomes meager in quantity and so salty that it is generally 
not fit to use. At Goss station, remote from the Lynn bench, the 
railroad company drilled through hundreds of feet of dense clay or 
shale that is almost totally destitute of water. 

In brief, the sediments underlying Sevier Desert were supplied 
chiefly by Sevier River, and consequently they become finer as the 
distance increases from the mouth of the canyon at Leamington, 
where the river began to deposit its load. This condition is shown 
in Plate III. Neels and Goss are situated near the Cricket Moun- 
tains (Beaver Range), and it might have been expected that gravel 
from this range would be intercalated between beds of clay derived 
from more distant sources, but, according to the well sections, such 
local materials are almost entirely wanting. 

Great Salt Lake Desert extends into the northern part of Juab 
County, forming the Fish Springs Flat and the flat between the 
Deep Creek Range and the Fish Springs Range. In the vicinity 
of Callao, at the base of the large alluvial slope of the Deep Creek 
Range, a number of good wells have been obtained, but in several 
holes sunk on the flat near the Fish Springs Range only salty water 
was found. The western part of this flat may have received some 
contributions of coarse sand from the streams that drain the Deep 
Creek Range or from water which in more humid periods probably 
issued from Snake Valley, but the eastern part of this flat and the 
entire Fish Springs Flat had no important source of local sediments. 
At its north end the Fish Springs Range is almost devoid of an 



36 GEOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

alluvial slope and the lake plain abuts against the rocks. Here con- 
ditions similar to those at Neels and Goss might be expected. 

White Valley was occupied by an arm of Lake Bonneville during 
most of the time that the lake existed, but this arm of the lake re- 
ceived no important streams. The extensive central flat of White 
Valley is therefore probably underlain to a great extent by fine 
nonwater-bearing lake sediments. Gravelly beds containing water 
may exist at the margins. 

In Escalante Desert the sediments are also predominantly fine but 
some beds of sand yield water of good quality. Satisfactory wells 
have been obtained at a number of points in this desert. 

WATER ON ALLUVIAL SLOPES OR " BENCH LANDS." 

The broad alluvial slopes which generally lie between the moun- 
tains and the lowlands comprise a large part of the total area of 
this region. Near the base of these slopes there are many good wells, 
as has already been shown, but on the middle and upper parts there 
are few wells, although many holes have been dug in the quest for 
ground water. In most of these unsuccessful projects the holes were 
abandoned before the level was reached at which the normal ground- 
water table could be expected, and the failure does not indicate the 
absence of water farther down. The ground-water table slopes up- 
ward in the direction of the mouths of the canyons whence the prin- 
cipal supplies of water are derived, but the surface of the land slopes 
upward much more rapidly. This increase in altitude is seldom 
taken into full account when a well is sunk. 

In the valleys which receive permanent streams and have satisfac- 
tory wells in their lower parts the prospects are good for obtaining 
water by sinking holes some distance farther up the slopes than 
where the wells now existing are located. But it will generally be 
necessary to sink to depths of several hundred feet before finding 
water, and the water will not rise near the surface. Prospecting on 
the alluvial slopes could be done more effectively with a drilling 
machine than by digging. (See pp. 58-64.) Springs and crusts of 
alkali in the low parts of valleys indicate that the water table is near 
the surface, and hence, like wells, give a basis for estimating the 
depth to water on the adjacent slopes. 

In the dry valleys in the western part of the region, even where 
springs or alkali flats are present, the prospects of obtaining water 
beneath the alluvial slopes is more uncertain, and exploration should 
be confined more closely to the lower parts of the slopes and to the 
localities where the largest canyons discharge their storm waters. 

On the side of a range toward which the rock strata of the range 
dip there is generally a broad and high slope, as, for example, the 
slopes on the west side of the Thomas Range and on the east sides of 



d700 
3600 
3500 
3400 



3100 
3000 



2700 
2600 




U. S. GEOLOGICAL SUR' 

Elevation above 
aea level 
Fee£ 

LYNN 
4800 



4700 



4600 
4400 
4300 
4200 
4100 
4000 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 277 PLATE III 



GOSS 



Gravel;: 
water, 1^ 
. Analyst - 



^ Quicksand;^, salty water 



i^ 



Quicksand; Salty water 
Quicksand; salty water 

Quicksand; salty water 



Fine sand; salty water, 

7:-r.-7:\ 14 gal. per min. 
Analysis given 



Quicksand; salty water 



Shale and sand; hot 
water 



Sand, gravel, and bowl- 
ders; salty water, large 
yield. Analyses given, 



Clay and sand; salty 
water, 1 gaL per min. 



Salty water, large yield 
Analysis given 






U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 277 PLATE III 



Elevation above 
$<ea level 
Feet 



4800 



LYNN 



l^5\ 



OASIS 



Sandy clay; water 

Gravel; hard but good 
water, 108 gal., per min. 
Analysis given 



SWAN LAKE FARM 



|k Several sand strata, 
^ yielding hard salty 



Several sand strata, yielding small flows 
of_s.oft water which contains hydrogen-; 
sulphide 



Sand; soft water 
Flowed 30 gal. per min. 
from 10-inch well 
^Sand; water 



Several sand strata 
which yield water . 
generously 




Gravel; salty water 
"Hardpan" with thin' 
layers of sand; salty 
water 



"Hardpan " with seven 
strata of sand, each 
4 to 6 inches thiclc ; salty - 
water, small yield 




Quicksand; salty water ■ 



LEGEND 



p^?fs$°S-S5 Gravel and conglomerate 
Sand and sandstone 
Clay and aliale 
Limestone 



Lava, volcanic ash. trap rock, etc. 



Line showing height to which the 

water rises by artesian pressure 



Approximate horizontal scale 
5 '5 10 Miles 



Sand, gravel, and bowl- 
ders; salty water, large 
yield. Analyses given ^ 



Salty water, large yield 
Analysis given 



WELL SECTIONS IN SEVIER DESERT AND LOWER BEAVER VALLEY . 



ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 37 

the House and Confusion ranges. (See PI. TV.) On these large 
slopes all the sediments above the rock formations are likely to be 
dry, and the prospects of obtaining water at any practicable depth 
are very poor. 

In some places where layers of clay alternate with beds of sand 
and gravel the water is prevented from sinking below the clay layer 
but percolates along its upper surface. Where such a condition 
exists small supplies are found unexpectedly near the surface, as, for 
example, in the wells at Hoi den. (See fig. 12, p. 92.) 

WATER IN HIGH VALLEYS. 

The absence of springs and alkali flats in the lowest part of a valley 
should be regarded as an unfavorable indication. It shows that the 
unconsolidated sediments are not saturated to the level of the lowest 
part of the valley, and it leaves no clue as to whether these sediments 
contain any ground water or are entirely dry. If the basin is in- 
closed on all sides and is underlain and bordered by impervious 
formations, such as the Tertiary igneous rocks, it may contain some 
water, but if it is only partly inclosed or is underlain by fissured 
rock, such as the Paleozoic limestones, its water is likely to be drained 
to lower levels. 

The principal regions containing elevated valleys that have no 
surface indications of ground water are the high country between 
Juab Valley and Tintic Valley and the mountainous district between 
Sevier Lake and Snake Valley. 

ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 

BEDROCK. 

The conditions in Juab, Millard, and Iron counties are unfavor- 
able for obtaining flowing wells from rock foriAations. In most 
places the strata in the mountains dip away from the adjacent val- 
leys or are so much contorted and broken that they preclude all pos- 
sibility of giving rise to artesian pressures. In some places they 
dip toward the valleys, but at so great an angle that they are carried 
to profound depths before they reach the lowlands where they might 
furnish artesian water. Moreover, the rocks which might bear water 
are not generally covered by competent confining beds, or the latter 
are so greatly faulted and fractured that they are ill adapted for 
holding water under pressure. 

Within this region there is no flowing well that is known to derive 
its water from bed rock and no locality where the prospects for 
obtaining flows from rock formations are sufficiently good to war- 
rant the expensive drilling that is necessary to make a test. There 
is a common fallacy to the effect that where flows are obtained from 



38 



GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 



the unconsolidated sediments much stronger ones could be secured 
by drilling deep into the bed rock. In fact, however, artesian con- 
ditions in the unconsolidated valley deposits bear no relation to con- 
ditions in the deeper lying bed rock, and are not in any sense an indi- 
cation that flows could be secured by drilling into the deeper solid 
formations. 

UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS. . 
FLOWS IN THE VALLEYSi 

In order to understand the artesian conditions in the unconsoli- 
dated sediments it is necessary to recall some of the relations that 
have already been explained. In many of the vallej^s these sediments 
are saturated to the level of the low central flats. (See fig. 5.) New 
supplies of water are poured into these valleys and sink into the 




UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS 



Impervious clay 



Porous sand and 
gravel above ground- 
water table 



Porous sand and 
gravel below ground- 
water table 



Impervious bedrock 



Figure 5. — Diagrammatic cross section of a typical valley, showing ground-water condi- 
tions : (a) Dry hole which if sunk deeper would strike bed rock without finding water. 
(&) Dry hole which woulo find water if sunk deeper, (c) Pump well of moderate depth. 
(d) Strong flowing well, (e) Weak flowing well. 

gravelly upper p^rts of the alluvial slopes. Thus the water beneath 
the slopes accumulates till it stands above the level of the central 
flats, and consequently moves slowly toward these low flats, where it 
reappears at the surface and is generally disposed of by evaporation, 
leaving behind the salts that it had taken into solution in the ground, 
in this way forming the alkali crusts found in low places. 

The unconsolidated sediments consist of gravel, sand, and clay. 
Beneath the higher parts of the slopes gravel predominates, but far- 
ther down in the valley it gives way largely to alternating beds of 
sand and clay. These beds are nearly level where they lie beneath 
the central flat, but curve upward where they extend beneath the 
bordering slopes. (See fig. 5.) The gravel and sand are porous and 
therefore allow water to percolate through them rather readily, but 
the clay is so dense that it is relatively impervious to water. The 
water which sinks into the gravel in the higher parts of the slopes 



ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 39 

and travels toward the central flat becomes confined below layers of 
clay, and the water which accumulates back of it places it under 
pressure. This pressure may become so great that when the clay 
layers are punctured, as in drilling, the confined water will escape to 
the surface, forming flowing wells. (See fig. 5.) 

If the clay layers were perfectly impervious the head of water 
would in many valleys be great enough to produce flows with strong 
pressure, but in fact they allow the water to penetrate them to such 
an extent that flowing wells seldom have a head of more than a few 
feet. For this reason springs, seeps, and alkali flats, by showing that 
the ground water is under sufficient pressure to escape to the surface, 
are indicators of artesian conditions. A valley showing no overfloAv 
in the low places has poor prospects for flowing wells. 

Large, steep alluvial slopes and an abundant water supply from 
the mountains are also promising conditions for flows. Stronger 
wells are generally obtained near the base of a slope than farther 
out on the flat because the slight disadvantage in level is more than 
counterbalanced by the greater coarseness of the sand and gravel 
and the closer proximity to the supply. 

It is evident from figure 5 that only a small part of the water now 
stored in the ground would flow out of wells without pumping. It 
is also evident that the amount of water that can be recovered from 
flowing wells each year, though dependent upon the annual incre- 
ment, is probably indicated pretty closely by the amount that an- 
nually escapes to the surface in low places. This is far from being 
the unlimited quantity that is so frequently postulated for artesian 
basins. Yet it must be remembered that the water that issues in the 
visible form of springs is probably only a small part of the total 
amount that escapes. Larger quantities generally come to the sur- 
face through capillary pores and evaporate unnoticed or with no 
other indication of their escape than the alkali that they leave behind. 

Flowing wells of the type described are in the north and south 
basins of Juab Valley, in the north and south basins of Hush Lake 
Valley, and in Little, Tintic, and Parowan valleys (Pis. I and II). 
The greatest number are in Parowan Valley and in the north basin 
of Juab Valley. Nearly all the wells are of small diameter and most 
of them furnish but little water. Some of the strongest flows are in 
Parowan Valley, where a few 3-inch wells yield more than 40 gallons 
per minute each and the total yield in the irrigation season amounts 
to several second-feet. 

More water could probably be recovered from flowing wells in all 
of the valleys mentioned. Parowan Valley has been developed most 
extensively; Juab Valley perhaps presents the best opportunities of 
further development, and Kush Lake Valley also offers a field for 
further explorations. Pavant Valley (Holden to Kaiiosh) has been 



40 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

rather thoroughly prospected and the results have been disappoint- 
ing. In the low parts of this valley the water rises nearly to the 
surface, but nowhere have flowing wells of any consequence been 
obtained. The large alluvial slopes and abundant water supply on 
the east side appear promising, but the interrupted lava beds on the 
west side may introduce an unfavorable structure. The drilling done 
in Snake Vallej^ abo^^e Trout Creek likewise failed to obtain flows, 
although in several wells the water rose nearly to the surface. How- 
ever, this valley has not yet been thoroughly prospected. There is 
also a chance for flowing wells in Round Valley, where some pros- 
pecting has been done, and they might possibly be obtained in certain 
restricted localities in the drier valleys of the region. 

Wells intended to supply water for irrigation should be made 
larger and should be sunk deeper into the unconsolidated sediments, 
where they may discover strong water beds that are not now tapped. 
The casing should be perforated to admit water at all levels where 
satisfactory water-bearing beds are found. Many believe that very 
deep expensive drilling would reach water under phenomenal pres- 
sure sufficient to cause it to flow even on the bench lands, but this 
belief is without foundation and affords no justification for expend- 
ing public or private funds in attempting to get flowing wells on the 
tipper parts of the alluvial slopes. 

FLOWS IN THE DESERTS. 

Over large tracts of the extensive ancient lake bottoms that now 
form desert flats, such as Great Salt Lake Desert, Sevier Desert, and 
Escalante Desert, the ground is saturated practically to the surface, 
and ground water is slowly evaporating. Here wells obtain water 
under sufficient pressure to rise within a few feet of the surface, or, 
in certain localities, to flow above the surface. In principle these 
wells do not differ greatly from the wells in the valleys. Their sup- 
ply comes from the surrounding alluvial slopes and is imprisoned in 
beds of sand beneath layers of clay. The areas in which flowing 
water may be expected as a rule lie close to the base of the large 
slopes or benches which furnish abundant supplies of water and do 
not extend to the interior of the deserts, where the surface is slightly 
lower. However, in the interior areas the sediments are so com- 
pletely saturated and the water from different horizons comes so near 
the general desert level that a slight depression in the surface may be 
sufficient to make weak flows possible. 

f Flowing wells of this type are found in Sevier Desert, at the 
margin of Great Salt Lake Desert, and in Escalante Desert. The 
flowing wells on the Beaver Bottoms, south of Black Rock, nearly 
all of which lie in Beaver County, can also be included in this class. 



SPRINGS. 41 

In Sevier Desert flowing waters are found in at least two distinct 
areas — the Deseret area and the Desert Wells area. The Deseret area 
which is the largest and most important area of flow in the region 
under consideration, contains several hundred wells whose water either 
overflows or rises so near the surface that no pumps are required. 
The second contains only a small group of flowing wells, several miles 
north of Sevier River, and has not yet been thoroughly explored. 
Both areas lie near the base of the Lynn bench, from which they are 
evidently supplied. Promising localities for further exploration are 
along the foot of the bench east of Oasis and north of the Desert 
Wells. The extensive sandy upland that reaches from Sevier River 
nearly to Cherry Creek can hardly fail to provide a copious supply 
of ground water to the lowland that borders it on the west. 

The only flowing wells in that part of Grreat Salt Lake Desert 
which extends into this region are in the vicinity of Callao. They 
-are situated at the margin of the desert and derive their waters from 
the large alluvial slope of the Deep Creek Range immediately to the 
west. Flows can probably not be obtained more than a few miles 
east of Callao although the surface descends slightly in that direction. 

Two flows have been struck in Escalante Desert. — one near the west 
margin and the other in a low tract in the interior. Flows with 
slight pressure can probably be obtained in other parts of this desert. 

In the desert areas, as in the valleys, stronger flows could be 
obtained by drilling wells of larger diameter to greater depths and by 
admitting water at more than one level, but no great increase in 
head is to be expected from deep drilling. 

SPRINGS. 
MOUNTAIN SPRINGS. 

The springs of this region fall into two general classes : Mountain 
springs and valley springs. The mountain springs include seepage 
springs and structural springs. 

Rain or snow falling on the mountain areas may sink into the 
disintegrated material that in some localities covers the firm rock 
and may percolate through this loose surficial material until it 
reaches a place where it is forced back to the surface by an outcrop- 
ping ledge of rock. These springs, which may be designated moun- 
tain seepage springs, are sensitive to differences in rainfall, and var}^ 
greatly in their discharge, as is illustrated by Plate V, in which the 
flow of a spring of this kind is plotted with the rainfall during the 
same period. 

In the arid basin ranges the principal formations are Paleozoic 
limestones and (juartzites and Tertiary igneous rocks. As the igneous 



42 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

rocks have fewer fissures and crevices through which the water may 
escape, and are covered with more rock waste than the limestones and 
quartzites, most of the seepage springs are found in the areas of 
igneous rock, as is well illustrated in figure 10 (p. 83). 

The water that falls on the mountain areas may not merely sink 
into the surficial rock waste, but may penetrate the joints, fissures, 
bedding planes, solution cavities, or pore spaces of the bedrock and 
descend far beneath the surface. As the relief of the mountain areas 
is great and the rocks are much deformed, some of these passages 
lead to the surface at lower levels, where the water that entered them 
higher up in the mountains gushes forth in the form of springs. 
This type, which may be designated structural springs, is most com- 
mon in the sedimentary formations of the mountains that have 
abundant precipitation. The discharge of such springs is more 
nearly uniform than that of seepage springs and constitutes an im- 
portant part of the low-water flow of the permanent streams of this 
region. A striking example of this class is the Warm Spring at 
Gandy, in Snake Valley, where a great volume of warm water issues 
from the face of a limestone cliff. 

SEEPAGE FROM UNCONSOLIDATED SEDIMENTS. 

It has been fully explained (pp. 34-36) that in most of the large 
rock basins, known as " valleys " and " deserts," the filling of uncon- 
solidated sediments is saturated with water to the level of the lowest 
parts, and that as new supplies are added overflow occurs in these 
low places. Though much of this overflow is accomplished through 
minute pores in the soil from which the water is evaporated so 
promptly that the process is quite unnoticed, some of it is accom- 
plished by a definite flow of water out of larger openings in the 
ground, forming springs or seeps. Springs of this character do not 
give a measure of the amount of overflow of the underground reser- 
voirs, but they are important in showing that such overflow is taking 
place. Like the flowing wells, to which they are closely related in 
origin, they occur most generally at the base of the alluvial slopes 
that have copious water supplies and are less common in the interior 
portions of the flats. 

Seepage springs are also likely to occur where the unconsolidated 
sediments have been eroded, as along stream channels and ancient 
shore lines. In some such places water is percolating along the upper 
surface of an impervious layer high above the normal ground- water 
level, and if the stream or wave erosion has extended down to this 
layer a line of springs results. 



SPRINGS. 43 

SPRINGS FROM LAVA BEDS. 

It has already been pointed out (p. 31) that the basaltic lavas, 
which are the youngest igneous rocks of the region, contain joint 
planes and other openings along which water can percolate with 
relative freedom; and that where these rocks lie at low altitudes they 
may give rise to large springs. Black Rock Springs, Clear Lake 
Springs, the Hot Springs north of Abraham, and some of the springs 
between Enoch and Rush Lake have been cited as examples of large 
springs of this type. 

HOT SPRINGS. 

Near the surface the temperature of the ground fluctuates with 
the seasonal changes in the weather, but at a certain depth below the 
surface the earth and the water which it contains are not affected by 
these changes but maintain constant temperature, which is approxi- 
mately the mean annual temperature of the region. The mean annual 
temperature was found to be 47° F. at Levan (for the period between 
1890 and 1903, inclusive) and 51° at Fillmore (for the j^eriod be- 
tween 1892 and 1903, inclusive) .^ At greater depths the rock and the 
water which it contains become gradually warmer, the increase gener- 
ally being 1° F. for about 50 to 100 feet of increase in depth. But 
where hot lava has been brought to the surface or intruded into the 
older formations the downward increase in temperature is much 
more rapid, even though the volcanic activity may have occurred 
many thousands of years ago. Moreover, where the rocks have been 
deformed heat has been produced by the friction involved, and here 
the downward increase in temperature may also be rapid. If the 
temperature of the water that comes from a spring is higher than the 
mean annual temperature of the region, the spring is, strictly speak- 
ing, a thermal spring. The high temperature indicates that the water 
comes from a deep source or from rocks that have been heated by 
volcanic activity, by deformative movements, or possibly by some 
other agency. 

This region contains a number of springs whose water is distinctly 
warmer than normal. The principal ones are the Hot Springs north 
of Abraham, the Hot Springs, northeast of Fish Springs Range, the 
Warm Spring near Hatton, the Warm Spring at Gandy, the Big 
Spring south of Burbank, some of the Fish Springs, and some of the 
pool and knoll springs of Snake Valley. The Hot Springs north of 
Abraham and the Warm Spring near Hatton are in close relation 
to volcanic formations and their water evidently derives its high 

1 Ilonry, A. J., Climatology of the United States: U. S. Dept. Agr., Weather Bureau 
Bull, g, 190G, pp. 833, 834. 



44 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

temperature from them ; the others seem to be related to faults in the 
rocks and their water is probably warm because it comes from great 
depths or from rocks that have been heated by deformation. 

POOL AND KNOLL SPRINGS. 

Pool and knoll springs include an important class of peculiar 
springs, typical examples of which are found only in Snake and 
Fish Springs Valleys, though springs having some of their charac- 
teristics are found in other parts of the region. In this class belong 
the Fish Springs, Devil's Hole, Knoll Springs, Kell Springs, Bishop's 
Springs (at Foote's ranch) , some of the springs between Foote's ranch 
and Trout Creek, Willow Springs, Redding Springs (in Tooele 
County), and perhaps the Hot Springs northeast of the Fish Springs 
Range. The location of most of these springs is shown in Plate lY, 
and all except Redding Springs are described in the sections of this 
paper dealing with Fish Springs Valley and Snake Valley (pp. 
124-126 and 129-133). Many of them yield warm water, and have 
already been mentioned in the discussion of hot springs. 

They are of two types, which differ completely in their external 
appearance but occur in close proximity to each other and are evi- 
dently related in origin. The pool springs are large deep reservoirs 
filled with clear water, and many of them are inhabited by small 
fish. At the top the reservoir or pool is bordered by a shelf that 
extends over the water surface, giving the pool somewhat the shape 
of a jug or cistern. The shelf appears to be composed largely of a 
felt- work of vegetable fibers and to be formed by the joint work of 
plants and wind. The plants at the margin extend inward across 
the face of the water producing a tangle in which the wind deposits 
sand and dust. In this manner a soil is formed on which the plants 
can develop further and close in still more on the water area. Chem- 
ical precipitates from the water form no important part of these 
shelves. 

The knoll springs consist of mounds or knolls, in few places more 
than 10 feet high, from the top or sides of which water flows. The 
knolls appear to be a development of the shelves of the pool springs. 
They yield less water than the pool springs in the same locality, evi- 
dently because the water is under less head. Thus there appears to 
be a limit to the growth of the knolls, and their construction involves 
the decline of the springs that have given them origin. 

That these springs are not merely the return to the surface of 
water that percolates into the sediments of the adjacent alluvial 
slopes seems to be shown by the following facts : First, the yield of 
many of them is larger than would be expected if they were sup- 
plied from local sources; second, their yield is nearly uniform, 



QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. 45 

though that of ordinary valley springs fiuctuates with the season; 
third, their location differs from that of ordinary valley springs, 
the Hot Springs and the Fish Springs, with their copious flow^, being 
near the end of a narrow and dry range, w^ith almost no alhivial slope, 
and some of the largest springs of Snake Valley, such as those at 
Foote's ranch, being on the east side of the valley, where relatively 
little water is- supplied by the low, dry Confusion Range; fourth, 
the temperature of many of them is distinctly higher than the mean 
annual temperature of the region, which is not the case with springs 
fed from shallow and local sources. All these differences suggest 
a relation to the rock structui^, and such a relation is further sug- 
gested by the somewhat linear arrangement of the different groups 
and by the evidences of recent faulting recorded by Mr. Gilbert near 
Hot Springs, Fish Springs, Willow Springs, Redding Springs, and 
Knoll Springs. As the tendency of the pools to become inclosed by 
a shelf or knoll seems to depend on the encircling vegetation, and as 
the luxuriance of this vegetation may result from the Avarmth of the 
w^ater, it may be that the knolls are in this way genetically related 
to the rock structure. 

QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. 
SUBSTANCES CONTAINED IN WATER AND THEIR EFFECTS UPON ITS USE. 

The water that falls as rain or snow contains little or no mineral 
matter, but when it enters the ground and percolates through the 
earth it gradually takes into solution substances w-ith which it comes 
into contact. Therefore underground Avater ahvays contains some 
dissolved mineral matter. As long as this matter is in solution it is 
invisible, but when the water evaporates, as in a teakettle or a steam 
boiler or on the surface of a low valley flat, the mineral matter is left 
behind and forms a crust or scale. Ground waters differ greatly in 
the total amount of substances contained in solution and also in the 
proportions of the different substances. The most common of these 
substances are calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, carbonates, 
bicarbonates, sulphates, and chlorine. When, by the evaporation of 
the water or some other process, these substances are thrown out of 
solution, they form compounds such as calcium carbonate (limestone), 
calcium sulphate (gypsum), sodium carbonate (black alkali), sodium 
sulphate (Glaubers salt), and sodium chloride (common salt). 

Water will also take up organic matter with which it conies into 
contact, and this organic matter may contain myriads of bacteria 
that become suspended in the water. 

The character of water and its value for various uses depends 
largely on the substances it contains in solution or suspension. 



46 GEOUKD WATEES IN WESTEBN UTAH. 

Small amounts of the common mineral constituents are not harmful 
to health. Chlorides are not objectionable in drinking water if only 
50 to 100 parts per million are present, but amounts clearly per- 
ceptible to the taste render water unpalatable. Magnesic and sodic 
sulphated waters are laxative and very high magnesium or sodium 
content renders water unfit for man or beast. .The worst form of 
alkali water is that which contains alkali carbonates. 

Most of the bacteria that water may ^contain are probably harmless, 
but among them may be the germs that produce typhoid fever or 
other disease. Hence water that is known to contain a large number 
of bacteria or a large amount of organic matter is regarded with sus- 
picion, and if some of the bacteria are of the kind that come from the 
intestines of man or other animals the water is considered unsafe for 
drinking and general household uses. 

Calcium and magnesium render water hard and therefore poor for 
toilet and laundry uses. When water is boiled bicarbonates are 
decomposed and an equivalent amount of calcium and magnesium is 
removed, but the calcium and magnesium in excess of this amount, 
such as would be present in gypsiferous waters, can not be precipi- 
tated by boiling. Sodium and potassium do not consume soap and 
therefore do not make water hard. 

Calcium and magnesium compounds are the principal constituents 
of the scale that forms in boilers. Sodium and potassium compounds 
do not form scale, but when they occur in large quantities they cause 
foaming and priming in boilers. 

Among the common alkali salts, the least injurious to plants are 
the sulphates, the most injurious are the carbonates, and the chlorides 
occupy an intermediate position. Whether water of a certain quality 
can be successfully used for irrigation usually depends on a number 
of related conditions, among which may be mentioned the type of 
crop that is to be raised, the amount of alkali already in the soil, the 
natural drainage of the land or the ease with which artificial drain- 
age could be established, and the cost and abundance of the water 
itself. If the land is poorly drained and water containing consider- 
able quantities of alkali is applied sparingly, the evaporation of this 
water results in the gradual accumulation of alkali in the soil ; but if 
the land is well drained and the same kind of water is applied in 
large quantities the alkali that would otherwise accumulate in the 
soil is washed out. T. H. Means ^ states that the limit of concentra- 
tion for irrigation water has been placed by some authorities at 300 
parts per million of sodium chloride (common salt) or sodium car- 
bonate (black alkali) and at from 1,700 to 3,000 parts per million 
of the less harmful salts ; that these limits are probably high enough 

1 The use of alkaline and saline waters for irrigation ; U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Soils Cir- 
cular 10. 



QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. 47 

where water is sparingly used, and that even then all except the most 
sandy soils or those with exceptionally good natural drainage would 
ultimately be damaged. But he describes certain gardens in Sahara 
Desert, in which vegetables considered sensitive to alkali are success- 
fully irrigated with water that contains as much as 8,000 parts per 
million of soluble salts of which as much as one-half is sodium 
chloride. In these gardens a very thorough system of drainage was 
established and the wat^r was applied frequently in large quantities. 

WATER FROM THE MOUNTAIN AREAS. 

The mountain streams of Avestern Utah are fed parth^ by springs 
and partly by the run-off from rain and melting snow. The water 
of these streams is, in general, moderately hard, but not otherwise 
highly mineralized, most of the dissolved solids probably being con- 
tributed by the springs. It is used chiefly for irrigation and is nearly 
everywhere good for this purpose. 

The water derived from the Tertiary igneous rocks and overlying 
loose waste likewise generally contains only moderate amounts of 
dissolved solids, as is shown by the analyses given in the section on 
the Tintic mining district (p. 85). 

GROUND WATER IN THE VALLEYS. 

The water in the beds of sand and gravel beneath the alluvial 
slopes does not differ greatly in its mineral content from that in the 
mountain streams, though on the average it is probably somewhat 
harder. In the central flats, where the soil contains considerable 
alkali, the water near the surface may be charged with sodium salts, 
but the deeper ground water is ordinarily of good quality. Most of 
the springs in low places also furnish good water, though some of 
them have deposited enough mineral matter to produce alkali flats. 

GROUND WATER IN THE DESERTS. 

On the alluvial slopes bordering the large desert flats and near the 
base of these slopes the ground water is generally of good quality, 
being comparable to that in similar situations in the valleys. The 
flowing wells at Callao serve as an example. But in the interior of 
the desert areas much of the ground water is saline. 

The mineral character of the ground water in the vicinity of 
Deseret is especially interesting. The water in the upper beds is so 
salty that it is not used, but the water in the deeper beds thus far 
encountered by the drill does not contain enough salt to make it 
objectionable for drinking and household use, though it contains 
more than is generally found in the water beneath the alluvial slopes. 
The water from most of the deeper beds contains hydrogen sulphide 



48 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

gas, which imparts a characteristic odor and tends to come out of 
sohition in small bubbles when the Avater is brought into contact with 
the air. This deeper water is softer than most of the water of the 
region. 

Water is made hard by its content of calcium and magnesium, 
which are derived largely from calcium carbonate and magnesium 
carbonate. But these carbonates can be dissolved by the water only 
through the aid of carbon dioxide, and the carbon dioxide is supplied 
chiefly by decomposition of vegetable matter in the soil. It has been 
explained that the principal ground-water supply of the region comes 
from the high mountain areas, which have relatively heavy precipi- 
tation and abundant vegetation, but that the supply for the vicinity 
of Deseret comes in large part from the Lynn bench, which has only 
a scanty desert vegetation. It is possible that this difference in vege- 
tation, resulting in a difference in the suppl}^ of carbon dioxide, may 
account for the deficiency of calcium and magnesium, and hence for 
the softness of the water. This hypothesis accords with the analysis 
given on page 116. 

The wells on the flat of Sevier Desert that supply good water are 
all within a few miles of the margin of the Lynn Bench. Deep wells 
farther southwest yield highly mineralized water. Every water- 
bearing bed in the railroad wells at Goss and Neels, which are, 
respectively, 1,775 and 1,998 feet deep, yields salty water. 

Similar conditions exist on the flat between Deep Creek and Fish 
Springs ranges. The wells at Callao yield good water, but in several 
wells drilled near Fish Springs Range only salty water has been dis- 
covered. 

In Escalante Desert more satisfactory water has been found. The 
drilled wells at Lund and Beryl, Webster's flowing well, a large num- 
ber of the dug wells, and the deep wells at Milford yield water of 
fairly good quality, but on the flat between Milford and Black Rock 
most of the deep wells yield salty water.^ 

WATER FROM SPRINGS. 

The character of the water from the mountain springs and the 
ordinary lowland seepage springs has already been discussed, but 
the character of the water from several less common types of springs 
requires special mention. 

- The Black Rock Springs and most of the other springs from lava 
beds yield water that is only moderately mineralized, but the water 
from Clear Lake contains considerable mineral matter, and that of 
the Hot Springs north of Abraham is very salty. 

1 Lee, W. T., Water resources of Beaver Valley, Utah : Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. 
Survey No. 217, 1908, p. 46. 



IKRIGATION WITH GROUND WATER. 49 

With a few exceptions the pool and knoll springs in Snake and 
Fish Springs Valleys yield water that is good to the taste. The Hot 
Springs northeast of the Fish Springs Eange and the Warm Spring 
near Hatton, like the Hot Springs north of Abraham, yield highly 
mineralized water. 

IRRIGATION WITH GROUND WATER. 
DEVELOPMENTS. 

The total area at present irrigated with water from wells does not 
exceed a few hundred acres, and nearly all of this Avater comes from 
flowing wells. The most extensive developments have been made in 
Parowan Valley, and Juab Valley ranks second in this respect. 
Small tracts are irrigated with artesian Avater at Callao and in some 
other areas. 

Pumping for irrigation has been attempted at the Desert Wells 
(north of Burtner) , on the farm of Edgar AVarton (west of Holden) , 
and to a slight extent in Juab Valley and elsewhere. The Desert 
Wells and Warton projects have been abandoned and no specific data 
in regard to them were obtained. 

At the Desert Wells the water rises to the surface, but pumps were 
installed, apparently for the purpose of supplying water in larger 
quantities and of lifting it to a little better land than that on which 
the wells are located. These wells are so small in diameter and so 
shallow that they probably did not yield very large quantities of 
water. Moreover, the soil is heavily charged with alkali (as is shown 
by the analysis given on p. 110) and the drainage is poor. 

The farm of Edgar Warton is situated on the flat between Holden 
and Pavant Butte (Sugar Loaf Mountain), where the ground water 
is near the surface. Several wells of large diameter were here dug to 
a depth of 40 feet. The water was lifted first with windmills and 
later by means of a gasoline engine. 

PROSPECTS. 

More land could be irrigated with artesian water if wells of larger 
diameter, tapping a greater number of water-bearing beds, were 
sunk, and if such wells were more widely distributed over the favor- 
able districts. As the areas of flow do not extend far beyond the 
limits of the alkali flats only the outer zones are ordinarily available 
for agriculture, but in order to recover the largest amounts of water 
the wells should be widely distributed along these zones. It is also 
important to conserve the water by allowing it to flow only when it 
can be used. 

90398°— wsp 277—11 4 



50 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

At best, however, the amount of land that can be irrigated with 
flowing wells is small, the difficulty being that the head is every- 
where so low that the yield is not large and trouble with alkali gen- 
erally threatens where flows of consequence can be obtained. A short 
distance up the slope from the margin of a flowing area and at a 
slightly higher altitude the soil is generally better. Here the water 
in drilled wells will stand near the surface and a moderate pumping 
lift will suffice to raise comparatively large quantities to a position 
where it can be used for irrigation. 

Irrigation by pumping from wells could probably, by wise man- 
agement, be made successful in Juab, Round, Pavant, Parowan, Rush 
Lake, and Snake valleys, in parts of Escalante Desert, and on a 
smaller scale in other areas, such as Tintic Valley. In Sevier Desert, 
where trouble with alkali menaces, ground water might be success- 
fully used for irrigation after an efficient system of artificial drainage 
has been installed. Possibly the water from the large pool springs 
could also be made available by pumping. 

The principal factors that must be considered in pumping for irri- 
gation are the quantity of water available, the quality of the water 
and of the soil, the cost of sinking the wells and installing the pump- 
ing plants, the cost of pumping, and the value of the crops. 

QUANTITY or WATER. 

The amount of available ground water in a given locality is fre- 
quently overestimated. Because the existing wells, which are re- 
quired to furnish only the small supplies needed for domestic or 
live stock uses, have never shown signs of becoming exhausted, 
it should not be inferred that any number of wells pumped contin- 
uously at a rapid rate will likewise be inexhaustible. Ground water 
is limited in quantity just as surface water is limited, and heavy 
pumping will soon develop these limitations even where there was 
not the slightest indication of them before. The quantity of water 
that a stream will furnish can be estimated with considerable ac- 
curacy on the basis of a series of definite measurements, but no such 
precise methods can be employed to determine in advance the avail- 
able quantity of ground water. For this reason projects based on 
ground-water supplies must be developed with great caution. It is 
true that ground-water supplies partake of the nature of huge reser- 
voirs filled with water, but figure 5 and the accompanying discussion 
make it evident that only a small part of these large stores can be 
recovered without pumping from great depths, which would involve 
greater expense than can be afforded for ordinary irrigation projects. 
To be permanently successful a project must not draw from the under- 
ground reservoir at a rate much more rapid than that at which the 
supply is replenished by nature. 



IRRIGATION WITH GROUND WATER. 51 

In order to obtain the maximum amount of ground water, it is nec- 
essary to distribute the wells over the largest area feasible. The 
amount of water that can be recovered in a given locality is suffi- 
cient to irrigate only a small part of the total available land, but the 
aggregate acreage that could be irrigated annually in these three 
counties with ground water is no doubt large enough to add substan- 
tially to their total agricultural production. 

QUALITY or WATER AND SOIL. 

"Where water from a stream or spring can be led upon land by 
means of inexpensive gravity ditches, it may be profitable to use this 
supply even though the alkali in the Avater or soil interfere seriously 
with the crops; but where an expensive pumping plant is required 
and the water must be lifted by means of power that costs money good 
crops must be assured. If the cost of producing the crops exceeds 
their value when sold, the project must obviously come to disaster. 
Before a pumping plant is installed the water that is to be used and 
the soil to which it is to be applied should be analyzed, and if the 
results are not favorable the project should not be carried out. The 
cost of having the quality of the water and soil investigated is small 
as compared with the cost of installing and operating a pumping 
plant. 

COST or PUMPING. 

The cost of installation includes the cost of the wells, pumps, 
engine or other source of power, reservoir and distributing pipes or 
ditches, and the cost of preparing the land for irrigation. 

AYhere irrigating is done on a small scale windmills can be suc- 
cessfully used, but the amount of water that they will lift is not 
great, and they are unreliable because they depend on the caprice of 
the wind. Where windmills are used reservoirs of considerable size 
should be constructed, and winter irrigation should as far as is feasi- 
ble be practiced.^ 

For somewhat larger pumping plants gasoline engines furnish a 
convenient and rather inexpensive source of power. Nine pumping 
tests were made by Prof. C. S. Slichter in Arkansas Valley, in Kansas, 
in which gasoline engines ranging in size between IJ and 10 horse- 
power were used. In these tests the cost of the gasoline ranged 
between 12^ and 22 cents per gallon ; the total distance that the water 
was lifted ranged between 15 and 22 feet; and the cost of fuel for 
pumping one acre-foot of water ranged between $1.09 and $3.75.- 
Fourteen similar tests were made by the same investigator in Rio 

1 See Fuller, P. E., The use of windmills in irrigation in the semiarid West : Farmers' 
Bull. No. 394, U. S. Dcpt. Agr., 1910. 

2 Slichter, C. S., The underflow in Arkansas Valley, in western Kansas : Water-Supply 
Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 153, 1906, pp. 55, 56. 



52 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

Grande valley with gasoline engines ranging between 5 and 28 
horsepower. The cost of the gasoline here ranged between 14 and 
17 cents per gallon ; the total lift ranged between 24 and 46 feet ; 
the cost of fuel for pumping one acre-foot ranged between $1.04 and 
$5.80 ; and the total cost for pumping one acre-foot, including labor, 
interest on investment, and depreciation, ranged, according to the 
estimates, between $2.21 and $13.20.^ It should be understood that 
the total lift is considerably greater than the normal depth to water 
because the water level is inevitably lowered as soon as pumping is 
begun, and also because it is generally necessary to lift the water a 
few feet above the surface. In a well in which the water level is 
normally 20 feet below the surface the water may readily be lowered 
to a level of 30 or 40 feet below the surface when a large pump is 
operated.^. 

In a discussion of the cost of pumping in Arkansas Valley the fol- 
lowing statement is made by Prof. Slichter in regard to gas-producer 
plants : ^ 

If plants of from 20 to 50 horsepower are constructed, as I believe will 
inevitably be the case in the near future, the cheapest power will probably be 
found in the use of coal in small gas-producer plants in connection with gas 
engines. These small gas-producer plants are largely automatic in action and 
can be operated by anyone. With hard coal or coke or charcoal at $8 per ton, 
the cost of power would be less than one-half cent per horsepower for one 
hour, or only one-fifth of the cost of power from gasoline at 22 cents a gallon. 
The writer anticipates no diflBculty, therefore, in keeping the cost of water 
below 60 to 75 cents an acre-foot for fuel, or below $1.25 to $1.50 an acre-foot 
for total expenses. Hundreds of such plants have been put in use in England 
during the past ten or more years, and they are in charge of unskilled labor. 
These gas-producer plants are used in England for a great variety of purposes, 
such as power for agricultural machinery and for small electric-light plants 
for country estates, etc. They are used in as small units as 5 horsepower. 

In this country the producer-gas plants have been in use for several years, 
and at the present moment they are fast taking the place of steam power in 
new plants. The cost of a producer plant and gas engine is about the same as 
the cost of a steam engine and boiler of the same size if everything is included, 
but the cost of power from the producer-gas plant is very much less than that 
obtained from small steam engines. 

In producer plants, ranging upward from 100 horsepower, a style of plant 
may be installed in which soft coal or lignite may be successfully used. This 
still further cuts down the cost of power. In fact, large plants of this type 
furnish the cheapest artificial power that has yet been devised. The saving is 
not only in fuel, but also in labor, as one man is capable of running a 300- 
horsepower plant. 

1 Slichter, C. S., Observations on the ground waters of Rio Grande valley : Water-Supply 
Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 141, 1905, pp. 34, 35. 

2 For further information on pumping plants see Gregory, W. B., The selection and 
installation of machinery for small pumping plants : U. S. Dept. Agr. Exper. Sta. Circular 
101, 1910. 

3 Slichter, C. S., The underflow in Arkansas Valley, in western Kansas : Water-Supply 
Paper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 153, 1906, pp. 57, 58. 



CULINARY WATER SUPPLIES. 53 

Coal that could be used for generating power exists in the moun- 
tains of eastern Iron County/ 

The mountain streams of this region are not large, but have so much 
fall that they could be used to develop considerable power which 
could be transmitted by means of electric currents and used for pump- 
mg ground water. Several small power plants, used chiefly for elec- 
tric lighting, have already been installed. 

VALUE OF CROPS. 

The staple crops of this region are wheat and alfalfa. If more 
intensive crops, yielding larger returns per acre, could be raised, the 
cost of pumping could be better afforded, but it is not safe to base 
calculations on such crops unless it has been established that they 
can be successfully produced and that there will be a permanent de- 
mand for them in the market. As cold air is heavy and therefore 
tends to sink, the low parts of the valleys and deserts have colder 
nights than the alluvial slopes or bench lands, and are more liable to 
have late and early frosts. For this reason fruit raising is not very 
successful at the lower levels where the ground water is near enough 
to the surface to be pumped. 

The best use of the ground water is probably to supplement the 
streams, especially since the flow of the latter is very irregular and 
their water can not easily be stored. In the sjoring and at other 
times when the streams are swollen the surplus water, now largely 
lost, can be applied to fields on the lower parts of the slopes. AA^ien, 
later in the season, the streams are small and none of their water will 
reach these fields, the growing crops can be irrigated by pumping 
from wells. By this combination method the ground water, available 
at the times when most needed, but used only when necessary, will 
have more than ordinary value, and small amounts will suffice to 
reclaim relatively large tracts of desert land. 

CULINARY WATER SUPPLIES. 

Most of the settlements that depend on mountain streams for their 
irrigation supplies are situated so far up the alluvial slopes that wells 
can not easily be obtained. Naturally the water for drinking and 
household use was at flrst also derived from these streams, and in 
most places it was drawn from open ditches constructed along the 
streets. Water from the streams is now generally regarded as unsat- 
isfactory, though it is still used by most of these communities. The 
domestic animals kept in the settlements roil the water and make it 
filthy, the flocks of sheep that graze in the mountains impart to it 

iLee, W. T., The Iron County coal field, Utah: Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 310, 1906. 
pp. 359-375. Richardson, (J. B., The Harmony, Colob, and Kanab coal fields : Bull. U. S. 
Geol. Survey No. 341, pp. 379-401. 



54 GROUND 'waters IN WESTERN UTAH. 

their characteristic odor, and the heavy rains that occasionally fall 
in the mountains make it muddy. 

The principal danger to health, however, probably does not lie in 
the pollution from these obvious causes, but in that which results 
when persons in the mountains become sick with diseases whose germs 
can be carried by water. It has been demonstrated that in a com- 
munity using water from a stream an epidemic of typhoid fever can 
be produced by a single patient suffering with this disease at some 
point in the drainage basin of the stream. In some localities in this 
region there have been epidemics of typhoid fever and other enteric 
diseases, and isolated cases occur after the epidemics are checked. If 
a person in the mountains is attacked with typhoid fever he is gen- 
erally ill for some time before he is brought to a settlement and 
placed in care of a physician. While he is in the mountains his 
excreta, burdened with typhoid germs, are usually not disinfected 
and can easily be washed into a stream that furnishes the drinking 
supply for a settlement below. This disease is no doubt spread by 
other agencies, a discussion of which is not within the province of 
this paper, but there is evidence that pollution of the water supplies 
is an important cause of its prevalence. 

Spring waters sufficient for a public supply and high enough to be 
led by gravity through pipe lines are found within a few miles of 
nearly every village situated on an alluvial slope. Waterworks sup- 
plied from springs have already been installed at Nephi and Holden 
and are being planned for Cedar City, Fillmore, and other towns. 
In most places the expense of installing such a system of waterworks 
is heavy when compared with the financial resources of the commu- 
nity, but its value in furnishing a convenient, clear, and wholesome 
supply of water would be great. In general the plans that are being 
considered do not provide for fire protection, which would involve 
an additional cost for a reservoir and large mains leading from it. 
Springs used for public supplies should of course be carefully 
guarded against contamination of any sort. 

Several of the settlements, such as Scipio, Meadow, and Hatton, 
are situated on relatively low ground, where water is found by dig- 
ging to moderate depths. Here open wells furnish most of the sup- 
plies for drinking and household uses. Their water may be con- 
taminated by privies near the wells or by other sources of pollution, 
but it is generally less dangerous to health than the stream water. 
Safer supplies could be obtained by drilling to deeper water-bearing 
beds of sand or gravel and finishing the drilled wells with tight iron 
casings to shut out the surface pollution. 

In the settlements along Sevier Eiver nearly the entire domestic 
supply is obtained from wells. Most of these wells consist of small 
drilled holes with iron casings 2 inches or less in diameter. AVhere 



SUPPLIES FOR DRY FARMS. 55 

the casing extends to the surface and the water overflows there is little 
or no chance of pollution. Where the water remains some distance 
below the surface, as at Abraham and Burtner, but is allowed to dis- 
charge into a dug pit, there is more chance for pollution unless the 
pit is made water-tight. Where the casing is large enough and the 
water is yielded rapidly enough the danger of pollution can be di- 
minished by extending the casing to the surface and pumping from 
inside of it. At Leamington there are shallow dug wells, but water 
from Sevier River is also used. The water in the dug Avells is liable 
to be somewhat polluted, but it is less dangerous to health than the 
river water. The latter should not be used for drinking. 

At Silver City, Robinson, and Mammoth the water supplies are 
brought through pipe lines from distant mountain springs, and with 
ordinary precautions they ought to be pure and wholesome. The 
supplies* for Eureka are in part conveyed through pipe lines from 
shallow wells in the Homansville Basin and in part drawn from 
shallow^ private wells in the city. Many of the private wells are so 
situated that they are dangerously exposed to pollution. With 
proper care the Homansville water can be protected, but contami- 
nating agencies, such as slaughterhouses, should not be tolerated 
in this basin. 

SUPPLIES FOR DRY FARMS. 

On the dry farms water is required for culinary purposes and for 
the horses and traction engines used in tilling the soil and harvesting 
the crops. Many of these farms have been established high up on the 
alluvial slopes or on other so-called' bench lands, where large tracts 
of fertile soil, free from alkali, have hitherto remained unused. 
Many of these elevated tracts are without water supplies and the 
water used on the dry farms is hauled long distances. 

The rainfall data indicate that most of the region considered is 
too arid for agriculture without irrigation and that dry farming will 
be restricted practically to the eastern valleys. As these valleys have 
comparatively abundant rainfall and most of them receive mountain 
streams their ground-water prospects are comparatively good. It 
seems probable that in most localities where dry farming is practiced 
adequate supplies of fairly good water can be procured from wells 
within convenient distances of the fields that are cultivated. 

Where the unconsolidated sediments are known to be saturated to 
the level of the low areas, such as Juab, Little, Round, Pavant, Paro- 
wan, Rush Lake, and Tintic valleys, water can generally be ob- 
tained by sinking wells higher up on the bench lands than has thus 
far been done, but the holes must be put down to depths of several 
hundred feet, and the water Avill have to be lifted from considerable 
depths beneath the surface. Positions not too high and as far as pos- 
sible from the margins of the mountains, or from any outcropping 



56 GROUND WATERS 11^ WESTERI^' UTAH. 

rocks, should be selected for wells, otherwise the water may be 
reached at depths from which it can not be conveniently lifted, or 
barren bed rock may be struck before any water is found. 

Prospecting for wells in these localities can be done better with 
drilling machines than by digging. The type of drill best adapted 
for this kind of work is discussed on page 69. By ascertaining the 
difference in altitude between the point where the drilling is to be 
done and the nearest successful well in the valley, some conception 
can be obtained of the probable depth to water. Generally, drilling 
should not be undertaken where this difference is more than several 
hundred feet. 

If casing not less than 4 inches in diameter is used, there will be no 
special difficulty in lifting enough water for dry-farm purposes from 
depths of 200 to 300 feet, or even more. A deep-well pump should 
be used which is entirely independent of the casing and whose cylin- 
der and valves are near the bottom of the well. The pump rod will 
occasionally break, because it will unavoidably wear against the 
inside of the pump pipe. On account of the high lift the valves must 
be kept in good condition. Repairing the pump rod or valves in a 
deep well involves no great expense, but generally requires the labor 
of several men for a few hours. 

Certain arable tracts, such as lie between Juab and Tintic valleys 
and in the region southwest of Kanosh, are so elevated and in many 
places appear to have rock so near the surface that it is doubtful 
whether available water exists there in the unconsolidated sediments, 
while drilling into rock is an expensive and uncertain undertaking. 

In Tintic Valley the alluvial slopes are so high and so much dis- 
sected that only the lower parts of these slopes have good prospects. 

On most of the Lynn bench the conditions are favorable for obtain- 
ing satisfactory wells by sinking to moderate depths. 

SUPPLIES FOR THE RANGE. 

In the extensive tracts which are too arid for agriculture of any 
kind, but which have a certain value for grazing, water supplies are 
needed for live stock, but so great is the aridity that watering places 
are scarce and even small supplies of poor water are highly prized. 
Parts of the region are so far from any supply that they can be used 
for grazing only in winter when there is snow on the ground. 

The prospects of getting wells are of course much poorer here than 
in the less arid dry-farming districts. In upland areas, such as the 
country lying between Sevier Lake and Snake Valley or the extensive 
bench lands east of the Confusion and House ranges and west of the 
Thomas and Fish Springs ranges, the chances are strongly against 
finding ground water. 



BOILER SUPPLIES. 57 

Wells that would furnish valuable supplies for live stock, however, 
would probably be successful in certain localities now destitute of 
water supplies. Such localities exist in Sevier Desert north of the 
Desert Wells, in the Old River Bed region, in the low parts of White 
Valley, and possibly in the bottoms adjacent to Sevier Lake and the 
lowest part of Wah Wah Valley. Wells should not be located either 
far up on the slopes or far out on the flats, but on intermediate low 
ground near the base of the slopes. The larger, steeper, and more 
gravelly the slope or bench and the more extensive the drainage area 
that pours its freshets over it, the better the chances of obtaining 
water. In these localities rather thorough explorations for ground 
water can be made without expensive drilling, for the formations 
encountered will almost invariably consist of unconsolidated sedi- 
ments that are not difficult to penetrate, and if bedrock should be 
struck it would probably be unwise to drill into it. Moreover, if 
properly located, a hole a few hundred feet deep wdll give a fair test. 

Iron County is better supplied with watering places than Juab and 
Millard counties, and this fact gives it a distinct advantage in rais- 
ing live stock. The small springs in the western mountains are uti- 
lized and a number of stock wells have been sunk in different parts of 
Escalante De'sert. The value of these wells is great in comparison 
with their cost. 

BOILER SUPPLIES. 

As this region contains no manufacturing towns, boiler supplies 
are not of primary importance, but such supplies are needed for the 
traction engines on the dry farms, for the stationary engines at the 
mines, and for the locomotives on the railroads. 

In endeavoring to procure locomotive supplies of adequate quan- 
tity and satisfactory quality at proper intervals along the San Pedro, 
Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad many difficulties were encountered. 
On the main line supplies are now provided at Tintic Junction and 
Jericho (in Juab County), at Lynn, Oasis, Goss, and Black Rock 
(in Millard County), and at Lund, Beryl, and Modena (in Iron 
County). At Tintic Junction the supply is taken from the Cherry 
Creek pipe line; at Jericho it comes through small pipes from a 
number of springs from 3 to 4^ miles distant; at Lynn it is drawn 
from a well that furnishes a large amount of good water; at Oasis 
it is also obtained from a well, but the w\ater is less desirable for 
boiler use than that at Lynn ; at Black Rock a supply of good water 
is derived from the springs near the station ; at Lund and Beryl the 
supply is obtained from wells that furnish water of satisfactory 
quality; and at Modena the suppl}^ is obtained through a pipe line 
from springs or wells a short distance from the station. 

The greatest difficulty was experienced between Oasis and Black 
Rock. An old well at Clear Lake and the more recently drilled wells 



58 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

at Neels and Goss all yielded highly mineralized water. The wells 
at Clear Lake and Neels have been abandoned, but the water from 
the Goss well is used in locomotives when necessary, although it is 
salty. 

In addition to being used in locomotives, the railroad supplies are 
largely relied upon for domestic purposes by the people who live at 
the stations, there being no other water at several of the inhabited 
points. At Clear Lake the drinking and culinary supplies are taken 
from a reservoir into which water is hauled by the railroad company. 

On the branch line of the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake 
Railroad that passes through Juab Valley good locomotive supplies 
are obtained from a flowing well at Starr and a spring near Juab. 

The Rio Grande Western Railroad Co. has a locomotive supply at 
Eureka, the water being derived from ishallow wells. 

CONSTRUCTION OF WELLS. 

TYPES OF WELLS IN USE. 

Four kinds of wells are found in this region: (1) Ordinary dug 
wells; (2) small cased wells; (3) large drilled wells; and (4) large 
open wells with infiltration galleries. 

The dug wells, which are the most common type, are found on the 
flats and on the lower parts of the alluvial slopes. They are sunk 
only a few feet below the level at which water is struck and are 
rarely more than 100 feet deep. Their construction requires con- 
siderable labor but costs little otherwise, for they are seldom curbed 
above the water level and the water is generally drawn with a bucket 
attached to a rope. 

The small cased wells are found in the flowing areas and in parts 
of Sevier Desert where flows are not obtained but where the shallow 
ground water is salty while the deeper water is of good quality. They 
are sunk where 'it is desirable to shut out the first water encountered 
and to tap deeper horizons — either because the deeper water is under 
greater pressure or is of better quality. The casing, which consists 
of iron pipe, is ordinarily between 1 and 2 inches in diameter. Since 
these wells are sunk only in the low areas where the sediments pene- 
trated consist of clay and sand with rarely any bowlders or large 
gravel, they can be drilled rapidly by the jetting or hydraulic process 
with a light and inexpensive rig. Where the water does not rise to 
the surface by artesian pressure it is customary to have a so-called 
" pit flow," a hole being dug to such a depth that the water from the 
deep stratum, coming up through the casing, will overflow into the 
hole, from which it is brought to the surface by a pump or other 
lifting device. 



CONSTRUCTION OF WELLS. 59 

A number of deep wells of larger diameter have also been drilled. 
Some of these Avere put down by the railroad company ; others were 
test wells sunk by the State of Utah; and still others were oil pros- 
pects sunk by different concerns. 

The large dug wells with tunnels or infiltration galleries are a 
special t3^pe adapted to special conditions. They are found chiefly at 
Eureka and Homansville where it is important to obtain as large 
supplies as possible from the meager seepage out of the decomposed 
igneous rock and overlying loose waste. 

DRILLED AVELLS ON ALLUVIAL SLOPES. 

The wells on the alluvial slopes are, almost without exception, of 
the dug type, but in some respects drilled wells with iron casing 4 
to G inches in diameter would be better adapted to the conditions. 
They could easily be sunk to greater depths than the dug Avells and 
thus they would frequently find water where the dug wells are 
failures. They would not, like the dug wells, end in the first water- 
bearing bed encountered, which is generally weak, but could be car- 
ried to deeper horizons where large supplies would be found. They 
would also be better protected from pollution and would therefore 
furnish cleaner and safer water for drinking and culinary use. If 
the labor required in digging a well is not considered, a dug well is, 
of course, much less expensive than a drilled one would be, but if the 
labor were paid for at a fair wage the dug well would probably not be 
cheaper. Since the digging is frequently done at times when there 
is no other work, the actual cost of many of the dug wells is not great. 
For drilling on the bench lands the light jetting rigs used on the 
flats would not be adequate, but heavy rigs, such as are used in sink- 
ing oil wells, are not necessary. A portable rig with cable and 4-inch 
or 6-inch percussion drill, built to go to depths of several hundred 
feet, will be serviceable for this kind of work. Such a machine can 
be purchased at a moderate price and operated with only moderate 
expense. If bowlders too large to be pushed aside by the drill are 
struck it may be possible to shatter them by the use of explosives, or, 
if the drilling has not progressed far, a new hole can be started with 
no ffreat loss of time. 



In the so-called " pit-flow " Avells, the pit must be dug to the sur- 
ficial ground-water level or somewhat lower. Unless these pits are 
made water-tight by means of cement curbs, they may admit salty 
water that in some places occurs near the surface, or bacteria -laden 
organic matter from nearby privies or other sources of pollution. 
The iron casing that extends to the deeper water is in most wells of 



60 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

SO small diameter that a pump placed inside of it would not give 
satisfactory service, but if wells with somewhat larger casing (per- 
haps 4 inches in diameter) were made, the casing could be brought to 
the surface and "a pump hung inside of it, thus dispensing with the 
pit. Where the water level is at a considerable distance below the 
surface these wells of larger diameter would probably not be more 
expensive than the small wells when the cost of the cement curb for 
the pit is included. 

IKRIGATION WELLS. 

Wherever irrigation with ground water is undertaken wells of 
large diameter should be drilled. These wells should be drilled deep 
enough into the unconsolidated sediments to tap water-bearing beds 
that have not been reached in ordinary drilling, and they should 
admit water at as many levels as practicable. Since in the localities 
where the ground water is near the surface the unconsolidated sedi- 
ments are easily penetrated with a drill, and since rock drilling is not 
involved, the difficulty of making these larger irrigation wells will 
not be as great as might be supposed. With the proper type of 
machine and with some experience in operating it, the work can be 
done rapidly and with few mishaps. The adoption of better methods 
than now prevail will lead to lower costs and to larger yields from 
both flowing and pumped wells, and may make practicable the 
development of ground waters in areas where their development is 
now impracticable. 



In California, where irrigation water is very extensively drawn 
from unconsolidated valley-fill material similar to that in which most 
of the valuable Utah ground waters occur, a special type of well has 
been evolved. In the belief that the California method of well con- 
struction can be used with advantage in the valleys of Utah, the 
following description is quoted from a paper by Charles S. Slichter : ^ 

CONDITIONS IN CALIFORNIA. 

The valleys in southern California are filled with deposits of mountain debris, 
gravels, sands, bowlders, clays, etc., to a depth of several hundred feet, into 
which a considerable part of the run-off of the mountains sinks. The develop- 
ment of irrigation upon these valleys soon became so extensive that it was 
necessary to supplement more and more the perennial flow of the canyon 
streams by ground water drawn from wells in the gravels. This necessity was 
greatly accentuated by a series of dry years, so that ground waters became a 
most valuable source of auxiliary supply for irrigation in the important citrus 
areas in southern California. The type of well that came to the front and 

1 The California or "stovepipe" method of well construction: Water-Supply Paper 
U. S. Geol. Survey No. 110, 1905, pp. 32-36. 



CONSTRUCTION OF WELLS. , . 61 

developed under these circumstances is locally known as the "stovepipe" well. 
It seems to suit admirably the conditions prevailing in southern California. In 
procuring water for irrigation the item of cost is, of course, much more strongly 
emphasized than in obtaining water for municipal use. The drillers of wells in 
California were not only confronted with a material which is almost everywhere 
full of bowlders and similar mountain debris, but also by a high cost of labor 
and of well casings. It was undoubtedly these difficulties that led to the very 
general adoption in California of the " stovepipe " well. 

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS AND METHODS. 

The wells are put down in the gravel and bowlder mountain outwash or 
other unconsolidated material to any of the depths common in other localities. 
One string of casing in favorable location has been put down over 1,300 feet. 
The usual sizes of casings are 7, 10, 12, and 14 inches, or even larger. A com- 
mon size is 12 inches. The well casing consists of, first, a riveted sheet-steel 
" starter," from 15 to 25 feet long, made of two or three thicknesses of No. 10 
sheet steel, with a forged steel shoe at lower end. In ground where large 
bowlders are encountered these starters are made heavier, the shoe 1 inch thick 
and 12 inches deep, and three-ply instead of two-ply No. 10 sheet-steel body. 

The rest of the well casing, above the starter, consists of two thicknesses of 
No. 12 sheet steel made into riveted lengths, each 2 feet long. One set of sec- 
tions is made just enough smaller than the other to permit them to telescope 
together. Each outside section overlaps the inside section 1 foot, so that a 
smooth surface results both outside and inside of the well when the casing is 
in place, and so that the break in the joint is always opposite the middle of a 
2-foot length. It is these short overlapping sections which are popularly known 
as " stovepiping." 

The casing is sunk by large steam machinery of the usual oil-well type, but 
with certain very important modifications. In ordinary material the " sand 
pump" or "sand bucket" is relied upon to loosen and remove the material 
from the inside of the casing. The casing itself is forced down, length by 
length, by hydraulic jacks, buried in the ground, and anchored to two timbers 
34 by 14 inches and 16 feet long, which are planked over and buried in 9 or 10 
feet of soil. These jacks press upon the upper sections of the stovepiping by 
means of a suitable head. The driller, who stands at the front of the rig, has 
complete control of the engine, the hydraulic pump, and the valves by which 
pistons are moved up or down, and also of the lever that controls the two 
clutches which cause tools to work up and down or to be hoisted. 

The sand pumps used are usually large and heavy. For 12-inch work they 
vary in length from 12 to 16 feet, are lOf inches in diameter, and weigh, with 
lower half of jars, from 1.100 to 1,400 pounds. 

After the well has been forced to the required depth, a cutting knife is low- 
ered into the well and vertical slits are cut in the casing where desired. A 
record of material encountered in digging the well is kept and the perforations 
are made opposite such water-bearing materials as may be most advantageously 
drawn upon. A well 500- feet deep may have 400 feet of screen if circumstances 
justify it. 

The perforator (see fig. 6) for slitting stovepipe casing is handled with 3-inch 
standard pipe with f-inch standard pipe on the inside. In going down or in 
coming out of the well the weight of the f-inch line holds the point of the 
knife up. When ready to " stick " the f-inch line is raised. By raising 
slowly on the 3-inch line with hydraulic jacks, cuts are made from three- 



62 



GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 



eighths to three-fourths inch wide and from 6 to 12 inches long, according 
to the material at that particular depth. In another type of perforathig ap- 
paratus (fig. 7) a revolving cutter punches fine holes at 
Q each revolution of the wheel. This style of perforator is 

called a " rolling knife." Besides these many other kinds of 
perforators are in use in California. In fact, the perforator 
is a favorite hobby of the local inventors. They all seem 
to work well. 



ADVANTAGES OF CALftORNIA METHOD. 

The advantages of this method of well construction are 
quite obvious. For wells in unconsolidated material, the Cali- 
fornia type is undoubtedly the best yet devised. * * * 

Among the special advantages in the stovepipe construction 
we may enumerate the following : 

1. The absence of screw joints liable to break and give out. 

2. The flush outer surface of the casing, without couplings 
to catch on bowlders or to hang in clay. 

. 3. The elastic character of the casing, permitting it to ad- 
just itself in direc- 




J 



Figure 6. — Per- 
forator for 
slitting stove- 
pipe casing. 



tion and otherwise to 

dangerous stresses, to 

obstacles, etc. 

4. The absence of 

screen or perforation 

in any part of the 

casing when first put 

down, permitting the 
easy use of sand pump and the pene- 
tration of quicksand, etc., without loss 
of well. 

5. The cheapness of large-size cas- 
ings, because made of riveted sheet 
steel. 

6. The advantage of short sections, 
permitting use of hydraulic jacks in 
forcing casing through the ground. 

7. The ability to perforate the casing 
at any level at pleasure is a decided ad- 
vantage over other construction. Deep 
wells with much screen may thus be 
heavily drawn upon with little loss of 
suction head. 

8. The character of the perforations 
made by the cutting knife are the best 
possible for the delivery of water and 
avoidance of clogging. The large side 
of the perforation is inward, so that 
the casing is not likely to clog with silt 
and d§bris. 

9. The large size of casing possible 
in this system permits a well to be put down in bowlder wash where a common 
well could not possibly be driven. 




Figure 7.- — Roller type of perforator. 



CONSTEUCTION OF WELLS. 



63 



10. The uniform pressure produced by tlie hydraulic jacks is a jxreat advantage 
in safety and in convenience and speed over any system relying upon driving 
the casing by a weight or ram, 

11. The cost of construction is Ivept at a minimum by the limited amount of 
labor required to man the rig, as well as by the good rate of progress possible 
in what would be considered in many places impossible material to drive in, 
and by the cheap form of casing. 

COST OF THE WELLS. 
An idea of the cost of constructing these wells can best be given by quoting 

actual prices on some recent construction in California. According to con- 
tracts recently let near Los 

Angeles, the cost of 12-inch 

wells was : 

Fifty cents per foot for 

the first 100 feet, and 25 

cents additional per foot 

for each succeeding 50 feet, 

casing to be furnished by 

the, well owner. This 

makes the cost of a 500- 
foot well $700 in addition 

to casing. The usual type 

of No. 12 gauge, double 

stovepipe casing, is about 

$1.05 a foot, 'With $40 for 

12-foot starter with f-inch 

by 8-inch steel ring. A 

good driller gets $5 a day ; 

helpers, $2.50 a day. The 

cost of drilling runs higher 
than that given above in 
localities where large and 
numerous bowlders are en- 
countered. 

The drillers build their 
own rigs according to their 
own ideas, so that no two 
rigs are exactly alike ; that 
is, the drillers pick out the 
castings and working parts 
and mount them according 
to ideas that experience has taught them are the best for the wash formations 
in which they must work. Figure 8 shows a connnon form of rig. 

It is not very profitable to name individual wells of this type and give their 
flow or yield, since conditions vary so much from place to place. From the 
method of construction it must be evident that this type of well is designed to 
give the very maximum yield, as every water-bearing stratum may be drawn 
upon. The yield from a number of wells in California of average depth of 
about 250 feet, pumped by centrifugal pumps, varied from about 25 to 150 
miners' inches, or from 800.000 to 2,000.000 galhms a day. These are actual 
measured yields of water supplied for irrigation. 

Among the very best flowing wells in southern California are those near 
Long Beach. The Boughton well, the Bixby wells, and the wells of the Sea 




Figure 8. — Common form of California well rii 



64 GKOUND WATERS IN" WESTERN UTAH. 

Side Water Co. are 12-iiich wells, varying in depth from 500 to 700 feet and 
flowing about 250 miners' inches each, or over 3,000,000 gallons per 24 hours. 
The flow of one of these wells is the greatest I have seen reported. Among the 
records for depth are those of 1,360 feet for a 10-inch well, and 915 feet for a 
12-inch well. A new 14-inch well has already reached a depth of 704 feet. 

WATERING PLACES ON ROUTES OE TRAVEL. 

The following information is given for the benefit of persons who 
are strangers to this region but who wish for any reason to make a 
journey to some part of it. In connection with these directions, Plates 
I, II, and IV should be consulted. It should be remembered that 
changes are made from time to time and that wells in use at one time 
may later become filled up. For this reason inquiries* should be made 
from local sources before starting on a trip. 

RAILWAY STATIONS AND THEIR CONNECTIONS. 

On the maps of this region stations are indicated at intervals of 
several miles along the railroad, but most of these stations are merely 
switches, with no inhabitants and no shelter, food, or water. 

Eureka, Robinson, and Silver City are mining towns where con- 
veyances and provisions for a journey can be procured. Mona, 
Kephi, Juab, and Leamington are villages situated oh the branch 
railroad that joins the main line at Lynn. Juab is the supply station 
for Levan and also has stage connections with Scipio. Leamington is 
a convenient station from which to reach Oak City. Lynn is a small 
railroad town where it may not be possible to outfit for a journey. 

South of Lynn the inhabited stations on the main line which sup- 
ply the region east and west are Akin (Burtner), Oasis, Clear Lake, 
and Black Rock, in Millard County; Milford, in Beaver County; 
Lund and Modena, in Iron County. 

Oasis is the principal supply station for middle and lower Snake 
Valley, and is a good outfitting point for a journey to the western 
parts of Juab and Millard counties. Oak City and Holden can 
also be reached from this station. A stage goes twice each week to 
Joy and freighters make regular trips to Fish Springs. 
- Clear Lake is the principal supply station for Pavant Valley. A 
stage goes daily to Fillmore, whence there are stage connections with 
Meadow and Kanosh, and also with Holden and Scipio. 

Milford is a mining town and also the supply station for Beaver 
and the other settlements of eastern Beaver County. From this point 
a branch railroad goes to Frisco and Newhouse, both of which are 
mining towns. From Newhouse there is a stage line to Garrison, in 
Snake Valley. 

Lund is the supply station for Rush Lake and Parowan valleys. A 
stage runs daily to Cedar City, from which there are stage connec- 



WATEEING PLACES ON ROUTES OF TRAVEL. 65 

tioiis with the other settlements in these valleys, and indirectly with 
Sevier Valley. A halfway house between Lund and Cedar City is 
situated at Iron Springs. 

Modena is the supph^ station for settlements in Washington County 
and for Gold Sj^ring, Stateline, and Fa}^ — small mining camps north- 
west of Modena. There are stage connections in both directions. 

TINTIC ^riNING DISTRICT TO SEVIER DESERT AND JOY. 

The road leading from the Tintic district south to Leamington or 
Lynn runs near the central axis of Tintic Valley. A good watering 
place along this road is Mclntyre's ranch, in the center of the valley 
and a short distance west of Mclntire station. Water can j)erhaps 
also be procured at Jericho station or at some other point in the 
valley. 

In going to Joy or points beyond, water can be obtained along 
Cherry Creek, preferably at Rockwell's ranch (NE. J sec. 30, T. 12 
S., R. 5 W.). The onlv permanent water supply between Rockwell's 
and Joy is at the Hot Springs, which are reached by leaving the main 
road and following a road that leads southward along the east side 
of the lava plateau. Since the water from these springs is too highly 
mineralized to be fit for man to drink, it is usually Avisest to drive 
directly to Joy. 

From Rockwell's, a road leads to Abraham and another to Oasis. 
Along the first there is no water until near Abraham; the second 
passes the Desert wells, where water can be procured. 

OASIS TO JOY, FISH SPRINGS, AND DEEP CREEK. 

The trip from Oasis to Deep Creek is best made by wa}^ of Joy, 
Fish Springs, and Callao, but it can be made also by way of Antelope 
Spring, Trout Creek, and Callao. 

Joy can be reached by way of Abraham or by way of the Old 
Smelter well and the road between Drum and Little Drum Moun- 
tains. On the Abraham route plenty of good wells are found be- 
tween Oasis and Abraham, but the last watering place before reach- 
ing Joy is a well a short distance northwest of Abraham, at the 
buildings on the farm of Peter Christ ensen (SW. J SE. J sec. 15, 
T. 16 S., R. 8 W.). On the other route the Old Smelter well, 15 
miles northwest of Deseret, is used by the freighters, but it can not 
be relied upon for a water supply unless specific information to that 
effect is obtained. The next w\atering place after leaving the Old 
Smelter well is at Joy, where there are two wells. 

In going from Joy to Fish Springs the road shown in Plate IV 
is followed. The first watering place after leaving Joy is at Cane 
90398°— wsp 277—11 5 



66 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

Spring, which furnishes water of poor quality that is used, however, 
by the freighters for their horses. Six or seven miles farther north 
is Thomas's ranch, where there is plenty of good water. At the 
Utah mine, on the west slope of the Fish Springs Range, water ele- 
vated from the mine is used for both man and beast. 

Between the Utah mine and Callao there is no water, but at the 
latter point there are good wells and springs. From Callao a road 
leads northward and westward across the mountains to the settlement 
in the valley of Deep Creek. 

From the Utah mine or Callao the middle and upper parts of 
Snake Valley can be reached by way of Trout Creek, where there are 
two ranches with a good water supply. There is no dependable 
watering place between these points and Trout Creek. 

STAGE ROUTE TO FISH SPRINGS AND DEEP CREEK. 

A stage goes from Ajax, in Tooele County, to Dugway, Thomas's 
ranch, the Utah mine, Callao, and Deep Creek, but this route has 
few watering places. Dugway (between the Dugway and Thomas 
ranges) is uninhabited most of the time and has no reliable water 
supply. 

OASIS TO SNAKE VALLEY. 

The middle part of Snake Valley is most conveniently reached 
from Oasis, the road leading west across the House Range, White 
Valley,* and the Confusion Range, as shown in Plate IV. After 
leaving the settlements the first watering place is Antelope Spring, 
on the House Range, and the second is one of the springs in White 
Valley. In White Valley the road forks, one branch leading to 
Trout Creek, another to Foote's ranch, and another to Meecham's 
ranch and Garrison. The first watering places reached on these 
routes after leaving the springs of White Valley are, respectively, at 
Trout Creek, Bishop's Springs (near Foote's ranch), and Knoll 
Springs. In Snake Valley, from Trout Creek to Garrison, Burbank, 
and Big Springs, watering places exist at no great distances apart. 

NEWHOUSE TO SNAKE VALLEY. 

Newhouse is a mining town in Beaver County, at the terminus of 
8 branch railroad that extends west from Milford. (Figs. 1 and 2.) 
From this point a stage is run west-northwest to Burbank and Gar- 
rison. On the route followed by the stage water can usually be pro- 
cured at Kelley's, which is on the west side of Wah Wah Valley, 
opposite Newhouse. A short distance south of Kelley's are the 
Wah Wah Springs, the water from which is conveyed through a pipe 
line to Newhouse, Between Kelley's and Burbank there is no 
:^atering place, 



JUAB VALLEY. 67 

BLACK ROCK AND CLEAR LAKE TO SNAKE VALLEY AND IBEX. 

Snake Valley is more easily reached from Oasis or Xewhouse than 
from Black Rock or Clear Lake. In making the trip from Black 
Rock it is best to go first to Newhouse or Kelley's and thence follow 
the stage road to Burbank. There is no watering place between 
Black Rock and Xewhouse or Kelley's. 

Ibex, a winter supply station for sheep herders, is situated a few 
miles west of the southern extremity of White Valley, about 35 miles 
by wagon road from Black Rock and 50 miles from Clear Lake. It 
is on unsurveyed land in T. 22 S., R. 14 AV., and, as nearly as was 
ascertained, its location in this township is about midway between 
the north and south lines and a little over a mile from the west 
boundar3^ The water supply, which consists of rain or melted snow 
stored in small rock reservoirs, is not permanent and should not be 
depended on unless specific and reliable information is received in 
regard to it before the journey is undertaken. There is no water 
between Black Rock and Ibex. In going from Clear Lake to Ibex, 
water can be procured at the flowing well on the Swan Lake farm 
(6 miles from Clear Lake station) and also at the headquarters of 
the farm (on the banks of Sevier River, about 10 miles from the 
station). There is no water between the river and Ibex, and none 
between Ibex and Garrison. 

JUAB VALLEY. 
TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. 

Juab Valley is bounded on the east by a precipitous and imposing 
rock wall, formed in the northern part by the southernmost exten- 
sion of the Wasatch Mountains and farther south by the San Pitch 
Mountains. (See PL I.) This section of the Wasatch Mountains is 
in the main a huge anticlinal fold, flanked on the west by steeply 
dipping strata, chiefly Carboniferous limestone.^ It culminates in 
Mount Nebo, which projects to an elevation of 11,887 feet above the 
sea and towers 7,000 feet above the center of the valley less than 5 
miles distant. The San Pitch Mountains contain younger forma- 
tions and nre capped by early Tertiary strata. 

On the west the valley is bordered by a low but continuous range, 
back of which lie loftier mountain masses. This range consists of 
Paleozoic limestones, overlain to the north by igneous rocks and to 
the south by a series consisting chiefly of red and yellow conglomer- 
ate and sandstone, probably early Tertiary in age. This series dips 
steeply eastward and pitches toward the south. 

The valley constitutes a structural trough continuous, in a sense, 
with Sevier Valley to the south and Utah Valley to the north, from 

1 Emmons, S. F., U. S. Geol. Survey, 40tli Par., yol. 2, 1877, pp. 343, 344, 



68 



GKOUND WATERS IIT WESTERIT UTAH. 



each of which it is separated by a low debris-covered divide. It is 
filled to an unknown depth with material washed from the mountain 
borders. It contains a north basin and a south basin, which are 

separated from each other 
by a broad, gentle eleva- 
tion commonly known as 
the Levan Eidge (fig. 9). 
The north basin belongs to 
the Great Salt Lake drain- 
age area and the south 
basin to the Sevier Eiver 
drainage area. The sur- 
face water in each has an 
avenue of escape from the 
valley, not by way of the 
low divide at either end, 
but through a gorge cut 
into the rock of the west 
wall. The swampy and al- 
kali conditions show, how- 
ever, that in recent time the 
drainage out of the valley 
has not been vigorous. 

RAINFALL. 



According to the rec- 
ords .of the United States 
Weather Bureau, the pre- 
cipitation is greater in 
Juab Valley than in any 
other section discussed in 
this report. (See p. 19 
and fig. 3.) At Levan, 
where observations have 
longest been made, the 
average annual rainfall for 
the last 16 years was 16.58 
inches, approximately 40 
per cent of which fell in 
the spring, 13^ per cent in 
the summer, 20 per cent 
in the fall, and 26J per cent in the winter. (See fig. 4.) In recent 
years considerable success has been .attained with dry farming. The 
principal product is winter wheat, and the usual method is to en- 




I v:.-.v..-/ ^^y '^;;' grounS watefCm feetL- 



pproximate contotirs'basedon 
i&vay levels andanercddreadings 
Contour interval 100 feet 



Figure 9. — Map of Juab Valley, Utah, showing 
ground-water conditions. 



JUAB VALLEY. 



69 



deavor to raise a crop only in alternate years.^ The abundant spring 
rains favor this method of agriculture, but the dry season which 
usually begins in June is adverse, especially for the late crops. 

Precipitation (in inches) in Juab YaUeij. 
Levan. 



Years. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Total. 


1892 


1.29 

1.28 

1.70 

l.CO 

l.K) 

1.95 

.SO 

1.43 

.87 

.93 

.53 

1.04 

1.71 

.91 

1.(14 

3.04 

.82 


0.55 

.98 
1.55 
2.20 

.(10 
1.88 

.25 
2.25 

.70 
2.23 
1.41 

.98 
1.93 
2.53 
1.37 
2.70 
1.19 


2.90 
3.42 
1.20 
3.50 
1.49 
2.22 
1.45 
3.96 
.12 
1.88 
2.41 
1.33 
3.25 
2.10 
5.(19 
1.21 
1.00 


1.G8 
2.69 
2.30 
5.10 
1.23 
1.05 
1.06 

.71 
3.70 
1.02 
1.20 
2.03 
1.00 
1.03 
3.77 
1.19 

.31 


1.85 
1.12 

.96 
7.18 
1.58 

.85 
5.57 
1.75 

.57 
1.74 

.16 
2.26 
3.13 
2.60 
3.30 
'2.33 
4.35 


0.47 
.00 

1.71 
.28 
.36 
.41 
.90 
.95 
.04 
.29 
.03 
.48 
.44 
.30 
.57 

1.35 

1.15 


0.20 
.40 
.95 
.84 

2.26 
.28 

1.62 
.25 
.03 
.25 
.32 
.47 
.79 
.34 
.79 
.43 

1.06 


0.02 

1.68 

.89 

1.04 

.71 

.14 

.73 

1.06 

.28 

1.55 

.20 

.15 

1.24 

.47 

1.31 

3.57 

1.55 


Tr. 

1.17 

2.87 
.91 
.54 

1.84 
.00 
.00 

1.70 
.18 
.91 
.92 
.27 

3.68 

1.74 
.91 

2.89 


■".'26" 

.85 

.89 

.50 

3.29 

.99 

2.07 

.69 

1.31 

1.62 

1.56 

.98 

.12 

.38 

1.11 

1.87 


0.60 

.96 

.00 

1.(53 

1.58 

1.23 

.94 

1.09 

1.45 

.53 

1.98 

.24 

.00 

1.22 

1.57 

.36 

.63 


2.38 
1.85 
2.75 

.95 

.36 
1.65 
1.36 
1.91 

.19 
1.40 
1.72 

.52 
1.52 

.94 
1.71 
1.89 
1.40 




1893 


15 75 


1894 


17.73 


1895 


26.12 


189(1 


12.37 


1897 


16. 79 


1898. . 


15. 67 


1899 

1900 


17.43 
10.34 


1901 

1902 


13.31 
12.49 


1903. . 


12.58 


1904 


16.26 


1905 . . 


16.24 


190;; 


23.84 


1907 


20.09 


1908. . 


18. '?2 






Average 


1.37 


1.49 


2.30 


1.83 


2.43 


.57 


.66 


.98 


1.21 


1.15 


.94 


1.44 


16.58 



Nephi. 



1904. 
1905. 
1903. 
1907. 
1908. 













0.43 

.26 


0.94 
.37 


0.07 
.49 


0.18 
2.86 


1.07 
.05 


0.00 
1.23 


1.10 
.69 


.79 


1.85 


2.60 


1.72 


1.71 


1.62 


1.07 


4.29 


3.76 


3.35 


.61 


1.45 


2.31 


.71 


Tr. 


1.81 


1.36 


1.82 


2.27 


2.26 


1.28 


2.13 


1.30 


.98 


1.98 


.64 


.67 


.66 


2.01 


.79 


1.21 


1.28 


.44 


4.46 


1.23 


.61 


1.31 


2.62 


1.63 


.66 


.60 



14.62 
22.34 
18.00 
16.84 



STREAMS. 

Juab Valley receives the drainage of about 500 square miles, some- 
what more than one-half of which belongs to the north basin. Most 
of this area is mountainous country which lies east of the valle}^ and 
gives rise to the creeks that furnish the irrigation supplies. The low 
ridge to the west has no springs of consequence and gives rise to no 
permanent streams. 

Salt Creek, the largest stream, heads far back in -the mountains, 
receives the drainage from the east side of Mount Nebo, flows through 
a canyon between the AVasatch Mountains and San Pitch Mountains, 
and enters the valley at Nephi, which it supplies w^ith water for irri- 
gation. North of Salt Creek a number of small streams issue from 
the high mountains and furnish irrigation supplies for ranches and 
small settlements that extend from Nephi to the north end of the 
valley. The surplus water that reaches the lowest part of the basin 
is there stored, and is eventually led, through the canyon that forms 
the north outlet of Juab Valley, into (loslien Valley, where it is 
utilized for irrigation. (See fig. 9.) 

1 Farrcll, F. D., Dry-land grains in the Great Basin 
try, Circular 01, 1010. 



U. S. Dept. Afir., Bur. Plant Indus- 



70 GEOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

The largest streams tributary to the south basin are Chicken Creek 
and Pigeon Creek, which provide the irrigation supplies for the set- 
tlement of Levan. Farther north Fourmile Creek, a small stream, 
flows out upon the Levan Ridge, where it supplies a ranch and a dry 
farm. About 8 miles south of Levan, Little Salt Creek enters the 
valley and furnishes irrigation water for a few families, and near 
the south divide a small stream debouches from Chriss Canyon. The 
surplus water in the south basin is utilized in much the same manner 
as that in the north basin. It is stored in a reservior in the low cen- 
tral flat, whence it is led, through the south outlet of Juab Valley, 
upon lower ground in Little Valley. (See fig. 9.) 

SPRINGS. 

In the north basin a chain of seepage springs extends along the foot 
of the east slope, which receives the principal suppl}^ of water from 
the mountains. In the south basin an important group of springs 
occurs on the farm of Arthur Meads (NW. J sec. 2, T. 15 S., R. 1 W.) , 
at the foot of the alluvial fan of Chicken Creek. It is probably fed 
largely by the irrigation waters applied to the Levan fields. 

The springs in both basins are employed to some extent for irri- 
gation, but much of the water goes to waste or is used to poor ad- 
vantage on low-lying grass lands. Water from Meads's Spring is led 
by gravity through a pipe line to the railway tank at Juab station and 
is there used for locomotive supplies. 

The discharge of some of the springs varies notably wit.h the dif- 
ferent seasons, the yield being greatest from July to October, and 
least in the latter part of winter. This fluctuation shows that the 
ground water responds to the seasonal variations in precipitation, 
but with a lag of several months, for the heaviest rainfall and the 
largest supplies from the melting of the snow in the mountains occur 
in the spring while the least precipitation is in the summer. 

FLOWING WELLS. 

In the low central part of the north basin (PI. I) numerous flow- 
ing wells are found for a distance of about 12 miles, from a point 
north of Starr nearly to a point in the valley due west of Nephi. 
The position of most of these wells on the east side of the central 
axis is due chiefly to the fact that the principal ground- water supply 
comes from the east, but is probably in part also due to the fact that 
the ranches and settlements are on the east side and therefore most 
of the drilling has been done there. The flowing wells range in depth 
from about 80 feet to somewhat more than 300 feet, and without 
doubt all are supplied from beds of sand and gravel in the valley fill. 
Nearly all are 2 inches or less in diameter, and their natural flow 



JUAB VALLEY. 



71 



ranges from a fraction of a gallon a minute to a maximum of about 
30 gallons a minute. Their yield is said to vary in a manner some- 
what like that of the springs, the largest discharge being in sunmier 
and fall, and the smallest in the latter part of winter. Several wells 
near the margin of the area of flow are so sensitive to climatic condi- 
tions that they may cease to flow during or immediately after dry 
seasons. The locomotive supply at Starr is furnished by a 1-^-inch 
flowing well from which the water rises into the tank by artesian 
pressure. 

The low central tract of the south basin is somewhat wider but not 
nearly as long as that of the north basin, and its ground-water re- 
sources have been less thoroughly explored. Until recently the only 
flowing well in this basin was that of N. M. Taylor, at Juab. This 
well is 2 inches in diameter and 130 feet deep and discharges several 
gallons per minute. It is situated on relatively low ground, but it is 
west of the center of the valley and rather remote from the east slope 
which is the main source of Avater supply. The water rises to at 
least the level of the railway, which is here 5,077 feet above the sea, 
or about 150 feet above the level reached by the artesian water in the 
north basin. 

In the summer of 1908 a prospect hole for oil was put down about 
one-half mile east of Juab. It was 12 inches in diameter at the top 
and 6 inches at the bottom and reached a depth of 560 feet. Water 
was struck at different levels and when the drill reached a depth of 
165 feet the water rose above the surface and overflowed at a rate 
estimated by the driller at about 200 gallons per minute. The drilling 
was finally stopped because of the abundance of Avater. The entire 
hole is said to penetrate valley deposits. The section to the depth of 
353 feet is reported by the driller as follows: 

Section of ivell east of Juah. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Sand and gravel 

Coarse gravel (water) 

Blue clay 

Quicksand and gravel (water) 

Conglomerate 

Yellow clay 

Gravel, with layers of quicksand and clay (flow). . . 
Conglomerate alternating with blue and yellow clay 



Feet. 
30 
10 
5 

75 
7 
3 

35 
188 



Feet. 
30 
40 
45 
120 
127 
130 
165 
353 



In the center of the valley in both basins the sediments washed in 
from the mountains no doubt extend to considerable depths, and the 
lower portions probably include beds of gravel that contain water 
under fidly as great pressure as the shallower beds that have hitherto 
provided the flows. Artesian water should not be expected on the 



72 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

bench lands, but the amount of water recovered through flows in the 
low areas could be increased if wells of larger diameter and some- 
what greater depth were drilled. 

GROUND WATER BENEATH THE BENCHES. 

In the two low central areas in which flows are obtained ground 
water is invariably found near the surface and springs are abundant. 
In passing from these central areas up the slopes toward the moun- 
tains, the ground water occurs at greater depths as the altitude 
increases. Where flows are not expected, the wells are usually dug 
by hand and are not sunk far below the level at which the first water 
is found. Though the yield of such wells is not large, it is generally 
sufficient for domestic and stock uses. 

In the vicinity of York, at the north end of the valley, about a 
dozen wells have been sunk. Some of these wells found seeps at a 
depth of less than 30 feet; others were carried to depths of over 100 
feet. (See fig. 9.) In the village of Mona the domestic supplies are 
derived chiefly from wells ranging in depth from a few feet to more 
than 100 feet, according to the altitude of the surface. At Nephi, 
which is located on the alluvial fan of Salt Creek, far above the low 
central area in which flows are obtained, there are at present no wells, 
but a successful well about 160 feet deep was at one time sunk. Far- 
ther down the slope, northwest, west, and southwest of the city, a 
number of wells have been dug, their depth depending on the alti- 
tude of the surface. On the west side of the north basin wells are 
scarce, but ground water in sufficient quantities for domestic and 
stock purposes can probably be obtained, especially under the lower 
parts of the slope. 

A number of wells have been dug in the fields below Levan, and 
ground water could probably be found beneath the village at depths 
not greatly exceeding 100 feet. A few wells have also been sunk 
south of Levan and in the region northwest of Levan, to within IJ 
miles of Sharp station. At the Little Salt Creek settlement there 
are several wells about 50 to 100 feet deep. On the farm of the Juab 
Development Co., in sec. 19, T. 15 S., R. 1 W., just west of Chicken 
Creek reservoir and near the west margin of the valley, a well was 
drilled into rock and carried to a depth of 620 feet before obtaining 
a satisfactory yield. The water in this well rises to a level 22 feet 
below the surface. 

Nearly all the wells in this valley are found within the areas in 
which the ground water is less than 100 feet below the surface 
(fig. 9), but recent dry-farming developments have created a demand 
for water supplies farther up the slopes, especially on the Levan 
Ridge. The ordinary failures of attempts to find water in the higher 



JUAB VALLEY. 73 

areas are readily explained by the fact that sufficient account was not 
taken of the altitude, the holes having been abandoned before there 
was any reason for expecting water. It is probable that wells sunk 
some distance beyond the limits of existing wells will be successful 
if digging or drilling is carried to sufficient depths, but the upper 
parts -of the slopes should of course be avoided. 

The most southerly well in the north basin is located about 2| 
miles north of Sharp Station and has water at a depth of about 60 
feet. The most northerly well in the south basin is that of Grace 
Bros., in the NW. i sec. 14, T. 14 S., K. 1 W., just west of the rail- 
way and about IJ miles southwest of Sharp (fig. 9) . This Avell is 102 
feet deep and its section is said to consist almost entirely of red clay, 
in which a seep was obtained at the depth of 92 feet. About 2 miles 
south of Sharp and at a somewhat lower level than the Grace Bros.' 
well, is the well of J. W. Paxman, which is 56 feet deep and yields 
generously. In the last two wells the water stands at a level of about 
5,100 feet above the sea, or not much more than 100 feet below the 
surface at Sharp, which has an elevation of 5,224 feet. This station is 
situated at approximately the lowest point of the divide between the 
north and south basins, and eastward from it the surface rises at the 
rate of about 100 feet per mile for several miles, beyond which the 
grade becomes steeper. (See fig. 9.) These relations give a basis for 
forecasting the depth to the ground-water table beneath the Levan 
Ridge. 

QUALITY OF WATER. 

The ground water in Juab Valley is hard, but, as a rule, is other- 
wise of good quality, this being true even of wells and springs in 
close proximity to alkali soils. A few of the shallow wells, especially 
on the west side, are reported to yield somewhat saline water, but 
here water of better quality can probably be found by tapping a 
deeper bed. The quality of the water used at Starr as locomotive 
supply is shown by the following analysis. This water is derived 
from a flowing well about 100 feet deep. 

Analysis of water from the railivay tvell at Starr. 

Parts per 
million. 

Total solids 207. 5 

Siliceous matter (SiO-) 4.5 

Oxides of iron and aluminum (Fe20.i+Al203) 1 

Calcium carbonate (CaCOa) 112 

Magnesium carbonate (MgCOs) 52 

Sodium chloride (NaCl) 23 

Magnesium sulphate (MgSOO, sodium sulphate (NasSOO, 
volatile, organic and loss 75 



^74 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

IRRIGATION WITH GROUND WATER. 

Much of the water that sinks into the gravelly deposits in the 
upper parts of the slopes, reappears in the low wet areas along the 
central axis of the valley, where it goes to waste or is put to poor use. 
A large part of this surplus ground water could be recovered through 
wells before it reaches the central areas and could be applied to fertile 
soil that is now idle for lack of water. 

Up to the present time irrigation with ground water has not been 
attempted except on a very small scale, chiefly from 2-inch flowing 
wells. Though more water could be obtained from flowing wells 
than is at present derived from this source, yet the possibilities of 
irrigating with artesian water are limited by the fact that much 
of the low land where copious flows can be obtained is too poorly 
drained and contains too much alkali to be successfully cultivated. 
If wells were drilled on somewhat higher ground and pumps were 
installed, water could be recovered in larger quantities and applied 
to better land. Before pumping plants are installed the precautions 
discussed on pages 49-53 should be taken. Pumping plants could 
probably be best employed in providing supplementary supplies for 
the latter part of the growing season, when the flow of the streams 
diminishes. 

CULINARY SUPPLIES. 

At Nephi water for domestic uses is derived from springs and led 
to the city through a gravity pipe line. At Levan the stream water 
that flows through the village is used. At Mona and most of the 
smaller settlements and isolated ranches the drinking and culinary 
supplies are obtained from wells. For some of the dry farms water 
is hauled from distant sources. 

ROUND, LITTLE, SAGE, DOG, AND FERNOW VALLEYS. 
TOPOGRAPHY. 

The mountainous region west of Juab and Sevier valleys embraces 
a north-south trough in which lie several small valleys that contain 
tracts of arable land. West of this trough are the East Tintic, Can- 
yon, and Pavant ranges, which form the highest part of the moun- 
tainous region; east of the trough is a group of lower ridges, the 
southern part of which is known as the Valley Eange. Sevier River 
breaks into this trough through a gap in the east rim, flows north- 
ward for about 10 miles in what is locally known as Little Valley, 
and then escapes into Sevier Desert through a deep canyon cut into 



ROUND, LITTLE, SAGE, DOG, AND FERNOW VALLEYS. 75 

the lofty west wall. Before the river leaves Little Valley it is joined 
by the channel of Chicken Creek, which enters from the south basin 
of Juab Valley through another gap in the east rim. Farther north 
a rock-ribbed region, including Sage, Dog, and Fernow valleys, and 
a small part of East Tintic Valley, is drained, at least potentially, 
into this section of Sevier River. At the south end of the trough 
lie Upper and Lower Round valleys. (See PL I.) 

GEOLOGY. 

The oldest rocks in this region consist of indurated Paleozoic 
quartzites and limestones which have been folded and greatly eroded. 
They lie at the surface in many localities, chiefly in the northern part 
of the region, and form the core of the Canyon and Pavant ranges. 
Younger strata, consisting mainly of red and buff conglomerates, 
sandstones, and shales, rest upon the irregular erosion surface of 
the quartzites and limestones, producing a pronounced unconformity, 
which is well displayed on the east flank of the Canyon Range. 
These younger strata are believed to be, at least in part, of early 
Tertiary age. They do not occur at the north end of the region, but 
they form the east wall of Sage Valley and become increasingly 
prominent south of Sevier River until, in the Round Valley area, 
they conceal the older formations almost entirely. They are less 
folded than the Paleozoic strata but are fractured and faulted and 
in this region they generally dip towar'd the east. In Fernow and 
Dog valleys the Paleozoic formations are partly covered by volcanic 
rocks, which are probably j^ounger than the Tertiary sediments.^ 

RAINFALL. 

The following table presents a record of the monthh^ precipitation 
at Scii^io, in Round Valley, where observations have been made for 
the United States Weather Bureau since 1894. The average annual 
precipitation at this point is somewhat less than at Levan, about the 
jrame as at Fillmore, and decidedly more than in the desert region 
farther west. (See p. 19 and fig. 3.) Approximately 35 per cent 
of the precipitation occurs in the spring, 14 per cent in the summer, 
24 per cent in the fall, and 27 per cent in the winter. (See fig. 4.) 
Dry farming has been undertaken on a large scale in Dog and Little 
valleys, the principal crop being winter wheat. 

1 Smith, G. O., Tintic special folio (No. Go, Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1900, p. 2. 



76 



GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

Precipitation {in inches) at Scipio. 



Years. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


•Tul^. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Total. 


1894 














.68 
.42 

2.82 
.42 
.19 
.58 
Tr. 

1.12 
.07 
.27 
.50 
.43 
.46 
.67 

. .98 


1.53 
.28 

1.59 
.38 
.44 

1.03 

i67 

.21 

.17 

.51 

1.01 

1.64 

2.17 

1.48 


2.08 
.38 
.89 

1.39 
.00 
.00 

1.17 
.10 

1.38 
.98 
.30 

2.88 

1.68 
.73 

2.09 


".'83" 
1.53 
3.34 

"i'oe' 

.57 

1.31 

.56 

.67 

.95 

.53 

.17 

1.35 

3.33 


.00 
1.35 
1.14 
1.55 
1.36 

.83 
1.17 

.51 
2.31 

.48 

.00 
2.66 
1.99 

.28 

.46 


2.00 

.80 

.40 

1.49 

1.10 

1.85 

.10 

.76 

.47 

.33 

1.99 

.50 

1.44 

2.67 

.74 




1895 


.58 

1.22 

2.60 

1.89 

1.40 

1.04 

.60 

.80 

1.51 

.82 

.67 

1.73 

2.39 

.16 


"".'io' 

2.61 
1.62 
2.28 

.20 
2.43 
1.61 

.86 
1.74 
4.70 
1.08 
2.35 
1.09 


2.12 
1.51 
3.26 
3.41 
3.85 

.10 
1.02 
2.25 
1.59 
3.21 
2.58 
3.97 
1.41 

.94 






.33 
Tr. 
.21 

1.10 
.43 
.10 
.27 
.08 
.36 
.28 
.09 
.71 

1.22 
.68 




1896 


1.06 
1.26 

.35 

.51 
2.09 
1.07 
1.17 
1.83 

.27 
2.00 
3.07 
1.19 

.46 


1.36 

.73 

2.83 

.70 

.01 

.83 

.84 

1.96 

2.01 

3.08 

2.12 

1.80 

3.56 


13.62 


1897 


19.24 


1898... 




1899. . 


15. 52 


1900 


6.92 


1901 


12.69 


1902 


11.75 


1903 


11.01 


1904 


12.58 


1905 


21.13 


1906.. 


19.99 


1907 


18.03 


1908 


15.97 






Average 


1.24 


1.74 


2.23 


1.26 


1.68 


.42 


.64 


1.03 


1.21 


1.32 


1.07 


1.10 


14.87 



WATER SUPPLIES. 



ROUND VALLEY. 



At the south end of the mountainous trough lies Upper Bound 
Valley, which is hemmed in on the east and south by the Valley 
Range and on the west by the precipitous up-faulted wall of the 
Pavant Range, but which opens northward into Lower Round Valley. 
The lower valley, in which is located the village of Scipio, is bounded 
on the east by the Valley Range, on the west by the Pavant and 
Canyon ranges, and on the north by a low ridge, through which has 
been cut a gap that is no longer functional as an outlet for the 
drainage. 

The water supply comes from a series of large springs and spring- 
fed streams near the head of the upper valley, the principal sources 
being Maple Grove Spring, Rock Creek, Phoero Creek, and Willow 
Creek. (See PL I.) The water flows to a depression near the outlet of 
the upper valley, where a reservoir has been constructed, and is thence 
allowed to flow to the lower valley, where it is used by the people of 
Scipio for irrigation. Any surplus water collects in the lowest part 
of the valley. Faintly outlined strands show that at some time in 
the past the lower valley held a lakelet with an area of several square 
miles. North of the pass to Holden there are several canyons that 
contain springs and small intermittent streams, but their discharge 
is not large enough nor regular enough to be of much value for 
irrigation. 

The upper and the lower valley each constitutes a relatively inde- 
pendent rock basin containing a rather thick deposit of loose sedi- 
ments that are partly saturated with water. In the lower valley 
there are many wells, most of which are in or near Scipio, where they 
furnish the greater part of the supply for drinking, household, and 



ROUND, LITTLE, SAGE, DOG, AND FERNOW VALLEYS. 77 

stock use. The ground-water level fluctuates with the rainfall and 
the amount of irrigation water that is used. In the southeastern part 
of Scipio tlie depth to water is more than 100 feet, but on the lower 
ground in the northwestern part of the village and in the adjacent 
area to the west it is generally less than 10 feet. Two test wells 
have been sunk in the hope of obtaining flows. One was drilled in 
the village square and is said to have been carried to a depth of over 
300 feet, apparently all in loose valley deposits. The other was 
drilled near the residence of H. Esklund, one-half mile or more west 
of the square and at a lower altitude. In both wells the water from 
the deeper beds rose fully to the level of the superficial ground- 
water table, but in neither was a flow obtained. In the shallow- 
water belt ground water could probably be profitably pumped for 
irrigation. In the southeastern part of the village, where water 
from the irrigation ditches is used for household purposes, more 
satisfactory supplies could be obtained by sinking Avells. 

LITtLE VALLEY. 

Little Valley may be said to constitute the valley of Sevier River 
from the Sevier Bridge dam to the point where it enters the canyon 
in the Canyon Range. (See PI. I.) 

In the level reach above the canyon the river has only a slight 
grade and is bordered by swampy bottom lands on which a dozen or 
more flowing wells have been drilled. ( See PL I. ) They are located 
on sections 15, 21, 22, 23, 27, 28, and 34, in T. 15 S., R. 2 W. Most of 
them are 2 inches in diameter and pass through clay, sand, and gi^avel 
to depths of a little over 50 feet. The water rises only a few feet 
above the level of the river and the yield is generally less than 10 
gallons a minute. The land on which the flows are obtained lies so 
low that it is not possible to make much use of the water for irriga- 
tion. Several springs of good size also occur near the river. 

On the east side of the valley, a short distance south of Chicken 
Creek, a well 2 inches in diameter and 320 feet deep was drilled for 
the Juab Development Co. It is said to end in valley sediments with- 
out reaching rock, and the water rises within 18 feet of the surface or 
slightly above the river level. This well is frequently pumped con- 
tinuously for several hours at the rate of 5 gallons per minute. 

The west side of the valley is occupied by a broad upland belt 
which is underlain in part by Tertiary strata that are dissected into 
a sort of bad-land topography and in part by younger sediments. 
In the lower portions of this belt, lying near the ri^^er, there will 
probably be no difficulty in obtaining enough water for domestic 
and stock use by sinking to moderate depths in the valley sediments, 
but on the higher levels the prospects are not good. 



78 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

SAGE VALLEY. 

Sage Valley lies north of Little Valley and its surface rises 
gradually from Sevier River to the rocky ridges that separate it 
from Dog Valley. (See PL I.) As far as was ascertained, it contains 
no spring, stream, or well. Wells sunk near the south end, where the 
surface is low and the valley sediments are generally deep, would 
doubtless obtain water, but farther north these sediments are likely 
to be drained and drilling would be an uncertain undertaking. 

DOG AND FERNOW VALLEYS. 

Dog and Fernow valleys lie several hundred feet above Juab Val- 
ley and Sevier River, and are hemmed in on all sides by rocky walls 
consisting of Paleozoic limestones and quartzites and Tertiary 
igneous rocks. The rock of both valley floors are in most places 
covered with loose sediments, but irregularities of the surface as 
well as exposures of the bed rock in certain localities indicate that 
the average thickness of these sediments is not great. Both valleys 
have gorge-like outlets toward the south, but neither has any per- 
manent stream. At the north end of Fernow Valley several small 
permanent springs issue from the porous mantle of disintegrated 
material that covers the impervious igneous rocks at the head of the 
valley. Recently a pipe line about 5 miles long has been laid from 
one of these springs to the headquarters of the Utah Arid farm, in 
Dog Valley. 

There is no well in either valley, but two unsuccessful attempts to 
obtain ground water have been made in Dog Valley — ^the first, a dug 
hole about 75 feet deep, in which no water was found; the second, 
a drilled hole put down in 1908 by the State of Utah. At a depth 
of 230 feet in the drilled hole no water had been found, but some 
sort of hard rock was encountered and the project was abandoned. 
There are no surface indications that the unconsolidated sediments 
contain water. The underlying limestones are likely to be traversed 
by fissures or solution passages which may allow the storm water that 
seeps into the unconsolidated sediments to escape to lower levels. 

TINTIC VALLEY. 
GENERAL EEATUKES. 

Tin tic Valley extends for nearly 30 miles in a north-south direction 
and comprises more than .300 square miles (PI. I). It is walled in 
on the east and northeast by the East Tintic Mountains, on the 
southeast by the Canyon Range, and on the west by the West Tintic 
and Champlin mountains, its outlet being toward the south through 
a constricted portion of the valley. 





U. S. GEOLOGIC 


WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 


277 


PLATE V 




J 


J 1906 1 




'June" 
July 
Aug. 
Sept. 


Mar. 

Apr. 

May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Nov.- 


150.000 

140.000 
130.000 
























- 














/ 


\ 


\ 


















/ 


/ 












120,000 
110.000 












/ 
/ 
























/ 






— V- 

\ 


S 






:r month) 








1 












\ 


\ 










1 
1 
1 


















5: 

^ 80.000 








1 

1 
1 


\\ 
















SPRINGS (CUBIC 








1 
1 


\ 


\ 










\ 




1 






1 
- 1 




1 














O 

£J 50,000 

40.000 








1 ; 


















— 


\ 




1 

1; 
J 1 


















30.000 




\ 




1 / 
J / 








I 

1 

1 


1 


1 














20,000 


tl 








/' 




\ 1 

\ 
\ 


1 
1 
1 








1 
1 






10,000 








i y'^ 


'' 




\ 

\ 

\ 


1 
1 








































F 


>REC 


IPITA" 


DON. 













s 



U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 



WATER-SUPPLY PAPER 277 PLATE V 




DIAGRAM SHOWING FLOW OF THE SPRINGS THAT SUPPLY SILVER CITY AND THE RELATION OF FLOW TO PRECIPITATION. 



TINTIC VALLEY. 79 

The stream channel which marks the central axis descends from 
about 6,000 feet above sea level, near the north end, to 4,000 feet 
where it enters the Sevier delta region, 200 feet above Sevier River. 
The alluvial slopes that extend from the mountain borders to the 
center of the valley are steep and gravelly, and are dissected to an 
unusual degree, the erosion topography in many places giving a relief 
of over 100 feet. The central draw is depressed below the adjoining 
bench lands out of which it has been excavated, and south of Jericho 
it expands to form the fiat bed of ancient Lake Bonneville, bordered 
by terraces of the Bonneville stage. The draws or stream valleys 
that are cut into the unconsolidated sediments are probably chiefly 
relics of the humid epoch when Lake Bonneville existed. 

Cedars and large sagebrush are found on the upper parts of the 
slopes, and rabbit brush grows in the draws, that collect some mois- 
ture. On the old lake bed the vegetation is dwarfed and scanty. 
No rainfall observations are available for this region, but the char- 
acter of the vegetation seems to indicate less intense aridity than in 
the region farther west. The high bench land is gravelly and the low 
draws and lake bed show indications of alkali, but areas of what ap- 
pears to be good soil are found at intermediate levels. 

The San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railroad enters the 
region through Boulter Pass at the north end, extends southward 
through the entire length of the valley, and makes its exit through 
the outlet at the south end. Except for the people at the Mclntyre 
ranch, in the heart of the valley, and a few railroad employees the 
valley is virtually destitute of permanent inhabitants. Dry farming 
has not been seriously attempted. 

WATER RESOURCES. 

In the mountains at the head and sides of the valley springs are 
numerous, but they are widely scattered and are not of sufficient size 
to be of much value for irrigation nor to give rise to streams of any 
importance. Consequently the broad alluvial slopes are destitute of 
water except on rare occasions when the snow melts or a rainstorm 
occurs and a mud-laden flood courses down the arroyos. The only 
partial exception to this condition is the valley of Cataract, or Death, 
Creek, which heads in the highest part of the West Tintic Moun- 
tains and leads southeastward toward Mclntyre and which in some 
seasons contains a small stream. 

Although little prospecting has been done, there is evidence that 
water exists in the valley deposits and that the central draw along a 
part of its course has been eroded to the ground-water level. 

In the vicinity of the Mclntyre ranch, wdiich is near the station 
of Mclntyre, sec. 28 ( ?), X, H S., R. 3 W., near the junction of th^ 



80 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

main Tintic draw with the draw of Death Creek, the flat-bottomed 
and deeply intrenched stream valleys receive numerous seeps and 
small springs that make it possible to raise a little grass and grain. 
At the old smelter, a short distance north of the ranch house, 
ground water was at one-time tapped by running tunnels to dis- 
tances of several hundred feet beneath the benches adjoining the 
valley, and water still flows from these abandoned tunnels. At this 
point there is also a shallow open well and a 2-inch flowing well, 
which is about 90 feet deep and usually yields several gallons per 
minute, though it is known to have stopped flowing in summer. At 
the ranch house there is a flowing well, said to be 190 feet deep, which 
yields a small supply of water. (See PI. I.) 

About midway between Mclntyre and Jericho stations, in ravines 
on the east side of the railway, are several small springs, variously 
known as Cazier Spring, Squaw Bush Spring, Twin Springs, etc. 
(PL I), which, together with the Kiley Springs in the mountains, 
furnish the railway supply at Jericho, the water being led to this 
station through pipe lines by gravity. 

In the valley, a few miles south or southwest of Jericho, several 
wells have, at different times, been dug to depths of 50 to 100 feet, 
and fairly good supplies of water have been found. 

About 2 miles north of Mclntyre station, in a draw on the east side 
of the railway, there was at one time a well about 60 feet deep, which 
is said to have had good water and to have been pumped by a 
windmill. 

About 1| miles northwest of Tintic Junction, a short distance west 
of the railway, and situated on dissected bench land, is a dug well 
belonging to G. A. Franke, which is 165 feet deep and contains about 
12 feet of somewhat mineralized water. In a ravine southwest of 
the Franke well, and a short distance north of the Cherry Creek 
pipe line, is another dug well, which is said to have found good 
water at a depth of about 50 feet. 

The steep, gravelly character of the alluvial slopes makes it prob- 
able that beds of sand and gravel extend to the center of the valley, 
and the springs and wells that have been described give reason to 
believe that these porous beds are saturated below a certain level and 
that wells sunk to moderate depths in the lower parts of the valley 
will be successful; but as the ground water is not under sufficient 
head to rise to the level of the more fertile land, little irrigation will 
probably be possible from flowing wells. On the higher ground in 
the peripheral parts of the valley the depth to water is in all proba- 
bility too great to make its recovery practicable. 

In most places the limestone and quartzite formations of this 
region dip away from the valley, and other conditions are unfavor- 
able for obtaining water by drilling into rock. 



TINTIC VALLEY. 81 

QUALITY OF THE WATER. 

The water from most of the wells and springs in this valley is of 
fairly good quality and is considered satisfactory for drinking and 
for culinary uses. The result of an analysis, made in September, 
1903, of the water from Cazier Spring, which is used by the railroad 
company for locomotive supplies, is presented in the following table : 

Analysts of icater from Cazier Spring, in Tintic Valley. 
[Parts per million.i Analyst, Herman Harms.] 

Total solids 508 

Siliceous matter (Si02) 57 

Oxides of iron and aluminum (FejOs+AhO.) 3.5 

Calcium carbonate (CaCOa) 137 

Calcium sulphate (CaS04) 38 

Magnesium carbonate (MgCOs) 39 

Sodium chloride (NaCl) ._ 163 

Calcium chloride (CaCl) Trace. 

Magnesium sulphate (MgS04), sodium sulphate (Na2S04), 

volatile, organic, and loss 70 

TINTIC MINING DISTRICT. 

GEOLOGY. 

The Tintic mining district, one of the oldest and most productive 
in the State, is located near the north end of the East Tintic Moun- 
tains. The geology of the region has been described in detail by 
George Otis Smith. ^ 

The indurated rocks belong to two distinct groups : A thick strati- 
fied series, consisting chiefly of Paleozoic limevStones and quartzites, 
and a series of igneous rocks of Tertiary age. After the stratified 
rocks had been compressed into large folds and had been somewhat 
fractured and faulted they were extensively eroded. Later they were 
invaded and in large part covered by the Tertiary lavas, which, in 
their turn, have also been submitted to prolonged weathering and 
erosion. The two systems differ radically in their relations to ground 
water. 

WATER IN LIMESTONE AND QUARTZITE. 

The areas underlain by the Paleozoic stratified rocks are practi- 
cally destitute of springs and wells (fig. 10) and the rocks themselves 
are barren of water to great depths, several of the mines in this 
region having been sunk to low levels without finding water or pass- 
ing beneath the zone of oxidation. According to reports, the Eureka 

1 Orifiinally reported in grains por gallon. 

2 Tintic special folio (No. 65), Geol. Atlas U. S., U. S. Geol. Survey, 1000. 

90398°— wsp 277—11 6 



82 GEOUND WATEKS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

Hill mine has reached a depth of 1,500 feet (4,976 feet above sea 
level), the Centennial mine a depth of 1,800 feet (5,093 feet above 
sea level), and the Mammoth mine a depth of 2,260 feet (4,780 feet 
above sea level), each without finding water, while in the Gemini 
mine water is reported at the 1,600-foot level (4,867 feet above the 
sea), and a pump is operated at the rate of about 100 gallons per 
minute. Apparently such fractures as exist in the limestone allow 
the water to descend to profound depths. 

WATER IN IGNEOUS ROCKS AND OVERLYING WASTE. 
SPRINGS. 

As is shown in figure 10, numerous springs are found in those parts 
of the mountains where igneous rock constitutes the surface forma- 
tion. The rock itself is nearly impervious, but its upper portion has 
been disintegrated into loose, porous, gritty materials, with which it is 
covered in localities that are sheltered from active erosion. The rain 
percolates into the debris mantle, but is prevented from descending 
far because of the underlying unweathered rock. Accordingly, the 
ground water either accumulates or seeps along the surface of the 
firm rock until it reaches a point where the rock crops out and the 
water is returned to the surface in the form of a spring or seep. 

Most of these springs are small, and as they are fed from shallow 
sources their flow varies greatly. In figure 10 the yield of a group 
of springs, whose water is led through a pipe line to Silver City, is 
plotted for a period of three and one-half years, during which their 
flow was measured, and on the same diagram is shown the precipi- 
tation for this period at Levan, one of the nearest points at which 
rainfall observations were made. The diagram shows that the yield 
fluctuates widely and that the fluctuations follow those of the rainfall 
with but slight lag. This diagram should not be given too strict an 
interpretation because the rainfall in the vicinity of the springs may 
have had a somewhat different distribution than at Levan and also 
because of repairs that were made on the system and meter within 
this period. Nevertheless, the records for this region show conclu- 
sively that the heaviest rainfall occurs in the spring months, and 
these spring rains no doubt account for the increase in flow shown in 
this season each year. Moreover, the radical increase in flow in 1906 
is clearly the result of an abnormal amount of precipitation at that 
time, for the records of the 11 stations for which data are given in 
this report all show more than the average amount of rainfall during 
this year, and 9 show more rainfall during this year than during any 
other in which records were kept. 

Springs of this type furnish supplies for Silver City, Jericho, and 
the Utah Arid farm, in Dog Valley. 



TINTIO MINING DISTRICT. 



83 




Contour interval 250 feet 
Dcttvim is meeuv sea level 



Valley depoaits Tertiary Paleozoic limestones Area containing 

igneous rocks and quartzites shallow domestic wells 

^ © X ^ 

Spring Pumping plant or large well Mine containing water Mine without water 

Figure 10. — Map of Tintic mining district, showing tho relation of tho water supply to 
the igneous rocks. (Geology after George Otis Smith, Tintic special folio.) 



84 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTEEIT UTAH. 

WELLS. 

Valuable supplies of water are derived from wells and infiltration 
galleries in the sediments overlying the igneous rocks and in the 
partly disintegrated upper portion of the rocks themselves. These 
wells are situated in the Eureka and Homansville gulches, which are 
on opposite sides of the main divide. (See fig. 10, p. 83.) The upper 
joart of each of^ these valleys is underlain by igneous rocks, is rela- 
tively broad and open, and is mantled with residual waste and sedi- 
ments carried down from the mountain sides; but farther down in 
each valley the igneous rocks give way to the more resistant lime- 
stones and quartzites, and the valleys accordingly become more con- 
stricted and canyon-like. The wells are found in the upper parts of 
the valleys, as shown in figure 10. 

In Eureka there are many private wells that are dug to depths 
ranging from about 15 to 125 feet. Most of these wells extend to the 
hard rock or are sunk a short distance into the rock, and they derive 
their meager supplies from seepage near the bottom of the loose ma- 
terials. Near the divide and in the Homansville Basin greater quan- 
tities of water are recovered through large vertical shafts and hori- 
zontal tunnels that afford extensive infiltration surfaces. Two of 
these plants may be considered typical. 

The water for the Gemini pumping station in the Homansville 
Basin is obtained from one or more shafts which are 60 feet deep and 
end in partly decomposed rock, and from two tunnels at the 60- foot 
level, which are about 5 by 7 feet in cross section and have a combined 
length of about 900 feet. At the time the plant was visited the water 
level was only 20 feet below the surface, but it is reported to descend 
nearly to the bottom in dry seasons. The pump is operated about 14 
hours each day at the rate of 27 gallons per minute, and the engineer 
in charge estimated that the maximum yield for continuous pumping 
is only about 25 gallons per minute. The water is considered satisfac- 
tory for use in boilers. 

• At the Eureka Hill pumping plant, situated a little farther north- 
east in the same basin, there is a main shaft, about 4 by 6 feet in cross 
section, that extends to a depth of 265 feet, largely through inco- 
herent materials consisting of clay, bowlders, and sand; two other 
shafts ; and tunnels at the 65- foot and lower levels, said to aggregate 
several thousand feet in total length. At the time the plant was 
visited it was reported that the normal water level was 20 feet be- 
low the surface but that the water in the well was drawn down to 
60 feet below the surface by pumping. The pump is operated at the 
rate of about 80 gallons per minute for about 5 to 12 hours each day, 
fully 50,000 gallons being withdrawn on certain days. The water is 
only moderately mineralized but varies considerably in mineral con- 



TINTIC MINING DISTRICT. 



85 



tent, probably with changes in the water level. The following table 
presents two analyses of this water made by the Dearborn Drug & 
Chemical Co. : 

Analyses of Homansville well waier.^ 

[Parts per million.] 



August, 


June, 


1895. 


1897. 


400 


320 


60 


48 


9.9 


1.2 


44 


55 


29 


26 


65 


33 


163 


146 


65 


35 



Total solids 

Silica (SiOa) 

Oxides of iron and aluminum (re203+Al203) 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 

Bicarbonate radicle ( I ICO3) 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 

Chlorine (CI) 



1 Those analyses were orlpjinally given in hypothetical combinations and in grains per 
gallon. All of the carbonates have been recalculated as bicarbonates. 

The Homansville wells furnish good illustrations of the fact that, 
if the filtration surfaces are made sufficiently extensive, important 
quantities of water can be recovered from materials whose specific 
yield is very small. 

MINES. 

Near Silver City there are many old mines that have been developed 
entirely in igneous rocks. They have invariably encountered water 
that descends along the veins or fracture zones but does not seem to 
have free means of escape into the subjacent limestone. As the water 
in the different veins is not in close communication, the level at which 
it occurs differs radically within short distances. Although the 
quantity of w^ater is sufficient to be troublesome in mining operations, 
it is not great when compared with the dimensions of the under- 
ground workings. Mines that have been developed in igneous rocks 
representing lava flows generally lose their water by downward per- 
colation when they are sunk into underlying limestone. 

DOMESTIC AND INDUSTRIAL SUPPLIES. 

To obtain enough water for domestic and industrial supplies the 
meager sources of this area have been heavily drawn upon and one 
source entirely extraneous to the area has been called into requisition. 

The large Avells in the Homansville Basin and in the upper part of 
Eureka supply a number of the principal mines, the Rio Grande 
Western Railroad, and much of the water for domestic consumption 
in Eureka, and small private wells in the city are also used for 
domestic purposes. The water from springs whose flow has already 
been discussed is conducted through a pipe line, by gravity, to this 
region, where it supplies the domestic consumption of Silver City and 
also a smelter and several mines. 



86 GEOUND WATERS IN WESTERN tJTAH. . 

On the west flank of the West Tintic Mountains, about 20 miles 
from Mammoth, there is a pumping plant that lifts water from 
Cherry Creek to the summit of the range. From the summit the 
\vater is conducted, through a pipe line, across Tintic Valley to Rob- 
inson, where a second pumping plant is used in raising a part of the 
water to the higher levels of Mammoth and some of the mines. It 
is estimated that about 150,000 gallons are pumped daily at Cherry 
Creek. The water thus obtained provides the railway supply at 
Tintic Junction, the domestic supplies at Robinson and Mammoth, 
and the supplies for several of the mines. The water is reported to 
be somewhat hard but otherwise of good quality. 

PA V ANT VALLEY. 

TOPOGRAPHY. 

The Pavant Range extends along the southeastern border of 
Millard County and forms a continuous mountain tract nearly 50 
miles long, with its highest peaks rising 5,000 feet above the adjacent 
country, or 10,000 feet above the sea (PL I). It abounds in springs 
and streams and supports a forest of large trees. In ground plan 
the range is a crescent, one horn of which projects north and the 
other southwest. On its southeastern convex side is the valley of 
Sevier River, which follows a course roughly concentric with the 
crest of the range. In the concavity on the opposite side, this range 
shelters the agricultural settlements of Kanosh, Hatton, Meadow, 
Fillmore, and Holden, beyond which stretches the sterile desert of 
western Utah. Toward the north the range bifurcates into the main 
Pavant Range and the Valley Range, and between these two forks lies 
Round Valley. North of the pass to Scipio the Canyon Range con- 
stitutes a virtual continuation of the Pavant Range. 

From the north end of Pavant Valley to beyond Kanosh extends 
a relatively smooth and featureless, yet somewhat dissected, alluvial 
slope, which descends gradually from the mountain borders and 
passes insensibly into the flat bottom lands. Its broad and even 
expanse is interrupted north of Fillmore by " Cedar Mountain " and 
"Bald Mountain," and west of Kanosh b}^ two lava buttes. (See 
fig. 11.) When Lake Bonneville stood at its highest level this slope 
was partly submerged, and at the water's edge a shore line was cut 
that can be seen distinctly when the region is viewed from the west. 
This shore line lies between the 5,000-foot and 5,500-foot contours 
as shoAvn on the map (fig. 11). It passes through Holden and Fill- 
more and a short distance back of Meadow and Kanosh. On the 
west the bottom lands are to a large extent hemmed in by various 
low mesas of volcanic origin, but to the northwest, between the 



PAVANT VALLEY. 



87 




Figure 11. — Map of Pavant ^'allcy, showing streams, springs, and gi-ound-wator conditions. 



88 GEOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

Canyon Kange and Pavant Butte, they merge into the level expanse 
of Sevier Desert. 

GEOLOGY. 

The rocks of this area include (1) quartzites and limestones, (2) 
conglomerates, sandstones and shales; (3) volcanic and intrusive 
rocks; and (4) unconsolidated stream and lake sediments. In age, 
the first are Paleozoic, the second Mesozoic and Tertiary, the third 
Tertiary, Pleistocene, and Recent, and the fourth chiefly late Ter- 
tiary and Pleistocene. The limestones and quartzites form the core 
of the Pavant Eange from the north end to the westward projection 
southwest of Kanosh, and they are also exposed in ridges in the 
valley between Fillmore and Holden. After they had been deformed 
and eroded they were covered by the deposits that hardened into con- 
glomerates, sandstones and shales, and that were later deformed and 
deeply eroded. At the south end of the range and in the mountains 
still farther south igneous rocks of Tertiary age occur in great quan- 
tity. In the desert to the west lavas and tuffs, ranging in age from 
Tertiary to very recent, lie at the surface in many localities, forming 
a chain of buttes and low mesas that partly isolate Pavant Valley 
from the main desert. Prominent among these buttes are Pavant 
Butte (locally known as Sugar-Loaf Mountain), Ice Spring Buttes, 
and Tabernacle Butte, all of which have been described in detail by 
G. K. Gilbert in his monograph on Lake Bonneville. 

RAINFALL. 

Observations made at Fillmore for the United States Weather Bu- 
reau show that during a period of 17 years the annual precipita- 
tion has ranged from 9.32 inches (in 1900) to 21.28 inches (in 1906) 
(fig. 3), and has averaged 14.61 inches, of which 39 per cent has 
fallen in the spring months, but only 14 per cent in the summer 
months (fig. 4). The average precipitation is about the same as 
at Scipio and slightly less than at Levan, but nearly twice as great as 
at Deseret and Black Rock in the desert to the west. This difference 
in climate is reflected in the natural vegetation, for on the Pavant 
bench, as in Juab and Round valleys, large sagebrush flourishes, but 
farther west the brush has a more pronounced desert aspect. The 
Pavant Range, with its numerous streams and springs and its large 
timber, forms a striking contrast to the dry and barren Basin ranges. 

Dry farming has been undertaken on a large scale west of Kanosh 
and on a smaller scale in other parts of the area, but at the time the 
region was visited (1908) it was uncertain whether this new enter- 
prise would be successful. 



PAVANT VALLEY. 
Precipitation (iti inches) at Fillmore. 



89 



Years. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Total. 


1892 








2.11 
2.09 
2.43 
1.23 
1.47 
1.26 

.59 
1.45 
3.18 
2.35 

.36 
2.66 

.26 
1.53 
4.38 

.55 

.50 


2.03 
1.53 

.64 
1.51 
1.06 

.03 
4.44 

.85 

.35 
1.92 

.90 
2.27 
2.81 
2.45 
2.18 
3.20 
4.15 


0.82 
.00 

2.04 
.80 
.01 
.26 
.96 
.96 
.60 
.57 
.09 
.04 
.25 
Tr. 
.40 
.88 

1.13 


0.29 
.48 
.34 
.56 

2.36 
.19 
.99 
.01 
Tr. 
.41 
.49 
.27 
.07 
.53 

1.27 
.97 

1.46 


0.47 

1.71 

1.19 

.97 

1.69 

.31 

.06 

.28 

.14 

.90 

.16 

.38 

1.13 

.62 

1.20 

1.23 

1.38 


0.06 
1.21 
1.94 
1.66 

.85 
1.50 
Tr. 

.00 
1.58 

.00 
1.51 
1.00 

.10 
2.81 
2.38 
1.24 
2.02 


1.07 
.46 
.41 
.93 
..37 

3.59 
.60 

1.94 
.93 
.72 
.58 

1.06 
.62 
.51 
.15 

1.99 

3.31 


0.53 

1.11 

.31 

1.46 

1.17 

1.15 

1.27 

1.06 

.66 

.15 

2.70 

.00 

.00 

1.13 

2.93 

.25 

.69 


1.20 

1.79 

1.77 

1.10 

..33 

1..55 

.76 

1.03 

.03 

1.97 

.46 

.40 

.95 

.54 

.63 

1.86 

1.55 




1893 


0.81 

.70 

1.93 

.75 

2.15 

.15 

.50 

1.25 

.35 

1.03 

1.44 

1.89 

.90 

.72 

1.67 

1.01 


1.51 

.56 
2.15 

.16 
2.17 
1.20 
1.40 

.45 
2.00 
1.03 
1.26 
1.90 
2.48 
1.16 
1.96 

.87 


2.89 
1.04 
2.06 

.94 
2.89 
3.07 
5.00 

.15 
1.54 
2.59 
1.19 
2.16 
2.66 
3.88 
1.34 

.36 


15.59 


1894 


13.37 


1895 


16.36 


1896 


11.16 


1897 


17.04 


1898. 


14.59 


1899 


14.48 


1900 

1901 


9.32 
12.88 


1902 


11.90 


1903 


11.97 


1904 


12.14 


1905 


16.16 


1906... 


21.28 


1907 


17.14 


1908... . 


18.43 






Average 


1.15 


1.39 


2.11 


1.67 


1.90 


.58 


.63 


.81 


1.17 


1.13 


.98 


1.05 


14.61 



STREAMS AND MOUNTAIN SPRINGS. 

The settlements at the west base of the Pavant Range are devoted 
almost exclusively to agriculture by means of irrigation, the water 
being derived, not from a single large source, but from a number of 
small streams that issue from the canyons and from numerous springs. 
(See fig. 11.) In general the flow of the streams is most copious in 
the spring when the snow in the mountains melts, but the discharge 
of any stream is likely to be temporarily greatly increased at any 
season by a heavy rainstorm in its small drainage basin. The normal 
flow is all carefully appropriated during the growing season, but as 
there are no reservoirs large amounts of water in times of flood and 
much of the winter flow passes the cultivated fields and reaches the 
bottom lands, where it is lost or produces a small amount of wild 
grass. 

The largest streams are Corn Creek, which drains about 90 square 
miles and forms the principal irrigation supply for Kanosh and Hat- 
ton, and Chalk Creek, which drains scarcely 50 square miles but 
furnishes the main supply for Fillmore. At Meadow several small 
streams are relied upon (chiefly Meadow Creek, Walker Creek, and 
Sunset Creek), and at Holden several small streams (chiefly Wild 
Goose Creek and Pioneer Creek) and a number of large springs are 
utilized. A small amount of water issuing from the southwest flank 
of the Canyon Range is also used for irrigation. 



SHALLOW-WATER BELT. 



Between the alluvial slope on the east and the lava fields on the 
west there is a belt of low level land in which the ground-water table 
is nearly at the surface. (See fig. 11.) Here there are many springs 
and seeps, and wells obtain water at only slight depths. Both the 



90 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTEEISr UTAH. 

northern section of this belt, which lies west of Holden and is in part 
known as the Pioneer Hay Field, and the southern section, which lies 
west of Fillmore and Meadow, support a growth of grass without 
artificial irrigation and furnish rather extensive hay fields and pas- 
tures. A chain of fresh-water springs, shown in figure 11, occurs 
along the east margin of this belt from west of Fillmore nearly to 
Hatton. Several miles northwest, of Hatton, near the northeast 
corner of sec. 24, T. 22 S., R. 6 W., is the Warm Spring, from whose 
tuffaceous basin flows a copious stream of mineralized water with a 
temperature of 94° F. Several cold springs yielding mineralized 
water occur farther west and north in this locality. 

Most of the water in the shallow-water belt is derived from the 
mountains east of this valley, but some seepage no doubt also comes 
from the table-lands to the west and from the sandy tracts. In addi- 
tion to the supply from these underground sources the surface waters 
that are not diverted for irrigation accumulate in the low areas. The 
contributions from surface sources are greatest in the winter and 
early spring, but those from underground sources reach their maxi- 
mum at a later season. The water level is usually highest and the 
yield of the springs greatest in the summer, following with some lag 
the thawing of the snow and the heavy rainfall of the spring months. 

ARTESIAN PROSPECTS. 

Considerable attention has been directed toward the possibility of 
obtaining flowing water and several unsuccessful test wells have been 
drilled. One of these was sunk by the State of Utah, about 5 miles 
northwest of Fillmore (NW. i sec. 36, T. 20 S., R. 5 W.), on low 
ground a short distance west of " Cedar Mountain." No definite rec- 
ord of this well is available. Its total depth is reported to be about 
900 feet ; the upper 100 feet are said to consist of clay and sand, be- 
low which the drill penetrated shale and red sandstone. Plentiful 
supplies of good water are said to have been found at the depths of 
25 feet, 60 feet, and 80 feet, but there is less certainty as to the amount 
found in the rock strata. The water did not come to the surface, and 
that from the deeper sources barely rose to the level of the first 
ground water. As a small amount of oil was struck, three other wells 
were sunk by private enterprise. . One of these is in the same locality 
and reached a depth of about 500 feet. Another, situated on the 
higher ground of " Cedar Mountain," reached a depth of 700 feet, but 
it is said to have found only a small quantity of water that stood 125 
feet below the surface. The third well, situated at the northwest 
margin of "Bald Mountain" (sec. 15, T. 20 S., E. 5 W.), only 



PAVANT VALLEY. 91 

slightly above the level of the low flat, was carried to a depth of at 
least 1,800 feet, and seems to have penetrated quartzite for much of 
this distance. The drillers re2:)orted that water entered through crev- 
ices at different levels and that the quantity was rather great. The 
water stood about 40 feet below the surface and showed no tendency 
to rise as greater depths were reached. The location of these wells 
is shown in figure 11, page 87. 

Throughout this region the structure of the rocks is not favorable 
for accumulating water under artesian pressure. Although in cer- 
tain localities the strata dip toward the valley, this is not their general 
attitude, and the extensive fracturing and deformation do not give 
much reason for expecting flowing water. 

In the shallow-water belt there were better prospects of obtaining 
flows from beds of sand in the unconsolidated sediments, but test 
wells have here also resulted in disappointment. Wells have been 
sunk in these sediments to depths of at least 190 feet. In some of 
them the water rose practically to the surface, but, as far as could be 
ascertained, no actual flow has anywhere been struck. The failure to 
obtain flows is probably to be attributed to the absence of a com- 
petent barrier on the west to confine the ground water and cause it to 
accumulate under pressure. 

AVATER BENEATH THE BENCH LANDS. 

Bordering the shallow-water belt on the east is a zone in which 
many wells have been sunk. In these wells the depth to water in- 
creases in general with the distance from the shalloAV-water belt. 
(See fig. 11.) The zone in which wells are successful coincides 
roughly with the zone in which the depth of water is less than 100 
feet, but there is reason to believe that for some distance farther up 
the slope wells could be obtained by sinking to a somewhat greater 
depth. The water level is, however, likely to be higher near the 
settlements, Avhere the large streams emerge from the mountains, than 
iri the intermediate meagerly watered tracts. 

The conditions in regard to the water table in the vicinity of 
Ilolden are the reverse of the conditions commonly found. This vil- 
lage is located at the base of a low cliff that marks the Bonneville 
shore line, several hundred feet above the bottom lands where the 
water table comes to the surface. At the foot of the cliff a number 
of springs emerge and wells find water at very shallow depths. 
Westward from the cliff the surface descends gently, yet the depth 
to water increases rapidly until in the northwestern corner of the 
village it is nearly or quite 100 feet, and 2 or 3 miles farther west 



92 



GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 



(N. ^ sec. 9, T. 20 S., R. 4 W.), and at a much lower level, there is a 
dry hole 90 feet deep. In figure 12 is shown the position of the cliff 
and springs, the location and depth to water of some of the wells, the 
slope of the surface, and the slope of the ground-water table, both of 
the latter being shown by contour lines with vertical intervals of 20 
feet and referred to an arbitrary datum of 100 feet below the post 
office. The explanation of the couditions seems to be that, a certain 
amount of underground seepage, instead of sinking at once to its 

normal level, follows along an 
impervious formation which 
comes near the surface at the 
foot of the cliff, but descends to 
greater depths toward the west. 

QUALITT OF GROUND WATER. 

In the following table are 
given two analyses of ground 
water from this area, both made 
at the Utah agricultural experi- 
ment station: 

The first is an anaylsis of 
water from the well of Daniel 
Stevens on the NW. J sec. 1, 
T. 21 S., R. 5 W., a few miles 
northwest of Fillmore ; the well 
is 50 feet deep and has a nor- 
mal depth to water of- about 35 
feet. As shown by the analy- 
sis the water contains only 
moderate amounts of the ordi- 
nary mineral substances, in 
which respect it is probably 
more or less typical of the 
water derived from most of the 
wells in this area and also of that from the springs along the east 
margin of the shallow-water belt. 

The second is an analysis of water from the well on the Kanosh 
Arid Farm, in the NE. J sec. 16, T. 23 S., R. 6 W., on low level 
ground several miles west of the village of Kanosh. This well is 42 
feet deep, normally contains 4 or 5 feet of water and has yielded as 
much as 2,800 gallons in a day, or 400 gallons in a period of 30 
minutes. The analysis shows that the water is rather highly min- 
eralized, about one-half of its dissolved solid content apparently be- 




^%m\\^' 



500 



Wells,givingdepth 
in feet to water 



2000 Feet 



Contour interval ZOfeet 
JJatvcm. isioofeet l>eloWJRO. 

Figure 12.^ — Map of Holden, showing the re- 
lation of tlae ground-water table to the 
surface. 



PAVANT VALLEY. 



93 



ing common salt. In the region north of this well there are several 
springs, including the AYarm Sj^ring, that yield mineralized water. 



Analyses of ground loatcrs in I'acant Valley, 
(Parts per million. Analyst, J. E. (Jroaves.] 



Total solids . 
Silica XSi02). 
Iron 



(Fc). 



Calcium (Ca) 

Carbonates, stated as calcium carbonate (CaCos). 

Sulphate radicle (SO^) 

Chlorides, stated as sodium chloride (NaCl) 



D. Stev- 
ens's 
well. 



520 

29 

Trace. 

38 

258 

2 

89 



Well on 

Kanosh 

Arid Farm. 



2,220 

30 

Trace. 

73 

714 

294 

1,181 



IRRIGATION AVITH GROUND WATER. 

Though flowing water may y^t be obtained from Avells sunk in un- 
consolidated sediments in the low-lying bottom lands, it is not prob- 
able that such wells would be of much consequence for irrigation be- 
cause the pressure would probably be so Aveak that the yield would be 
small and the water would rise only to the surface of the low ground 
that is ill adapted for agriculture. 

A few years ago an attempt Avas made by Edgar Warton to irri- 
gate on his land, 4 miles Avest of Holden (S. -| sec. 6, T. 20 S., E. 4 
AY.; see fig. 11), by pumping from wells of large diameter dug to 
a depth of about 40 feet. The poAver AA^as at first applied by wind- 
mills but a gasoline engine was later installed. At the time the re- 
gion Avas visited this project had been abandoned but no definite in- 
formation was obtained as to the difficulties encountered. 

NotAvithstanding this apparent failure, it seems probable that a 
certain amount of irrigation could be successfully accomplished by 
pumping ground water. There is little doubt that a large supply of 
good water is available. The greatest danger of failure in this region 
lies in the alkali in the soil of the shallow-water tracts. In en- 
deavoring to keep the vertical lift as Ioav as possible there is danger 
of locating on land that is poorly drained and so impregnated Avith 
alkali that the project is predestined to failure. Perhaps the best 
use that can be made of the ground Avater in this valley, as in Juab 
Valley, is as a supplementary supply for the latter part of the grow- 
ing season when the floAv of the streams becomes small. 



CULINARY SUPPLIES. 



In the village of Holden dug Avells formerly furnished the domestic 
water supplies, but more recently there have been installed six small 
independent pipe lines leading from the springs at the foot of the 



94 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTEEN UTAH. 

cliff along the east margin of the village (fig. 12), and most of the 
wells have accordingly fallen into disuse. The pressure in the pipes 
is not sufficient to afford fire protection. 

In Fillmore several wells have been dug on comparatively low 
ground at the north end, but most of the people depend on the stream 
water. At the time the region was visited, plans were under con- 
sideration for the installation of a system of waterworks to be sup- 
plied by gravity from a mountain spring. 

In Meadow and Hatton the domestic supplies are obtained chiefly 
from dug wells, which range in depth from about 55 to 90 feet in the 
former village and from about 30 to 40 feet in the latter. 

In Kanosh the only well at present is that of Hyrum Prowse. This 
well was sunk to a depth of 127 feet and the water rises to a level 91 
feet below the surface. It is reported to have been pumped for 
several hours at the rate of 15 gallons a minute. Two other wells 
were at one time dug but both have for some reason been abandoned. 
As in Fillmore, the domestic supply comes chiefly from the irrigation 
stream and is led to the houses through ditches, but plans are being 
considered to install waterworks that will be supplied from a spring. 

LOWER BEAVER VALLEY. 
TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. 

The Cricket Mountains, a typical basin range, on old maps called 
the Beaver Range, lie in the south-central part of Millard County 
and trend in a north-northeasterly direction. Farther south, in 
Beaver County, the range is continuous with mountains of another 
name, but at the north end it projects into a flat desert expanse. It is 
composed of paleozoic quartzites and limestones which for the most 
part dip toward the east, though in the vicinity of Goss they dip west- 
ward, giving this part of the range a synclinal structure. This range 
contains a few small springs, but it is essentially dry and barren, in 
which respect it is in strong contrast to the Pavant Range about 30 
miles farther east. 

The area between these two ranges consists of plains, mesas, and 
buttes. ( See PL I. ) The part lying south of a line extended westward 
from Kanosh is largely occupied by low mountains and table lands 
which are formed in part of stratified rocks and in part of igneous 
material, and into which the shore lines of the ancient Lake Bonne- 
ville have been incised. The part north of this line is occupied 
chiefly by a plain but contains a number of low tables and buttes 
of lava and tuff, a large part of which was extruded while the lake 
was in existence or since its desiccation. At the north end of the area 
is Pavant Butte (Sugar Loaf Mountain) whose exposed position and 
unique form make it a notable landmark. 



LOWER BEAVER VALLEY. 



95 



Between the Beaver Range and the volcanic area just described, 
the valley of Beaver Creek leads nortlnvard from Beaver County and 
opens out upon Sevier Desert. (See 1^1. I.) South of Black Rock 
the valley is broad, flat, and playa-like, but north of this station it 
becomes constricted betAveen the mountain range and a lava plateau, 
and it is held within rather narrow limits until it reaches the vicinity 
of Turner's ranch, where the confining rock Avails retreat or disap- 
pear. In the area betAveen Cruz and Borden the valley is crossed by 
a succession of bars and terraces built during the Provo stage of Lake 
Bonneville, but farther north it expands into a Ioav flat area that 



merges into Sevier Desert. 



HAINFALL. 



Lower BeaA^er Valley and the adjacent uplands appear arid, bar- 
ren, and desolate. The observations made at Black Rock for the 
United States Weather Bureau indicate an aA^erage annual precipita- 
tion of less than 10 inches. 

Precipitation {in inches) at Black Rock. 



Years. ' 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Total. 


1901 


0.40 
.26 
1.11 
4.10 
.48 
1.59 
1.85 


1.43 
.20 
1.30 
1.00 
2.26 


0.34 
1.15 
2.00 
.93 
1.74 


1.29 
.16 

2.59 
.26 

1.28 

3.31 
.52 
Tr. 


0.78 
.23 
1.72 
1.64 
1.52 
.91 
1.31 
1.59 


0.C4 
Tr. 
.33 
.04 
Tr. 
.12 
.53 
.20 


0.15 
.40 
.41 
.05 
.05 

'".b'i 
1.17 


L02 
.19 

1.75 
.56 
.75 

1.12 


0.00 

.84 

.92 

.30 

2.57 

2.33 


0.56 
.53 
.95 
.65 

.88 
.03 


Tr. 

1.97 

.10 

.00 


0.70 
.45 
.18 
.55 


■ 
7 61 


1902 




6.38 


1903. 




13.36 


1904 


6.39 


1905 




190G 


2.11 


.97 




1907 


.78 


1.50 




1908 - - - 


.80 




3.31 


.00 


1 


































1 




8.43 































STEEAMS. 

The valley of BeaAcr Creek forms the natural outlet for a large 
drainage basin that lies to the south of LoAver BeaA^er Valley, and 
if the climate Avere more humid it would be occupied by a riA^er; but 
under existing. conditions the streams that rise in the high mountains 
of BeaA^er County normall}^ disappear long before the}^ reach this 
region, and it is only in exceptional fi-eshets that Avater floAvs through 
this part of the valleA^ At Turner's ranch a reservoir for storing 
flood water has been built, the dam being at a point where an ancient 
lake bar is projected across the valley. Pine Creek, in the northeast 
corner of BeaA^er County, and Cove Creek, in the southeast corner of 
Millard County (PI. I), have small irrigation supplies, but the channel 
that leads from these small streams to BeaATr Creek is noruially dry. 

SPRINGS. 
BLACK ROCK SPRINGS. 

In the vicinity of Black Rock station the eastern border of Beaver 
Valley is formed by the abrupt cliff of a large plateau. In a re- 



96 



GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 



entrant of this cliff, about 1 mile east and a short distance south of 
the station, there are three groups of springs that issue from crevices 
in the lava rock near the base of the cliff. The southernmost group 
yields the most water. Its flow, measured at different times by the 
railroad company, was found to average 622,000 gallons per day, or 
432 gallons per minute, and to be nearly constant, the daily yield at 
no time being found to vary more than 10,000 gallons from the 
average. The water has a temperature of about 58 °F. It is of good 
quality and contains only moderate amounts of the mineral sub- 
stances usually found in ground waters. The following analyses of 
water from the south group are reported by the railroad company. 
No. 1 represents water from the small spring farthest north in this 
group; No. 2, water from the middle spring; and No. 3, water from 
the large spring farthest south. 

Analyses of water from Black Rock Springs. 
[Parts per million. i Analyst, Herman Harms.] 



Total solids 

Siliceous matter (Si02) 

Oxides of iron and aluminum (Fe203+Al203) 

Calcium carbonate (CaCOs) 

Magnesium carbonate (MgCOs) -. 

Calcium sulphates (CaS04) 

Sodium chloride (NaCl), magnesium sulphate (MgS04), sodium sulphate 
(Na2S04), calcium chloride (CaCl2), magnesium chloride (MgCl2), vola- 
tile, organic, and loss 



1 


2 


397 


324 


48 


49 


2.5 


1.5 





69 


11 


31 


62 


27 


273 


146 



328 
50 
2 
70 



139 



Originally reported in grains per gallon. 



A part of the Avater is led through a pipe line to the station, where 
it is used in the locomotives and forms the only domestic supply ; the 
rest is used for irrigation on James's ranch, at the springs, where it 
produces a small oasis in the midst of a large desert. 



CLEAR LAKE SPRINGS. 



Somewhat more than 30 miles northwest of Black Eock Springs is 
a group of springs that furnish a larger supply of water for irriga- 
tion. These springs are situated east of Clear Lake station and 
southwest of Pavant Butte, and issue from the margin of the lava 
bed that extends southward from that butte. They give rise to a 
small lake that was formerly called Spring Lake but is now locally 
known as Clear Lake, from which the water naturally discharges into 
a marshy area to the north but is at present led through a canal to 
Clear Lake station, where it is used with partial success for irriga- 
tion. The following analysis of water from the lake was made at 
the Utah agricultural experiment station. 



LOWER BEAVER VALLEY. 97 

Analysis of water from Clear Lake. 
[Parts per million. Analyst, J. E. Greaves.] 

Total solids 1,003 

Silica (SiO.) 19 

Iron (Fe) Trace. 

Calcium (Ca) 77 

Carbonates, stated as calcium carbonate (CaCOs) 240 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 188 

Chlorides, stated as sodium chloride (NaCl) 786 

OTHER SPRINGS. 

These two large springs, or rather groups of springs, both closely 
related to beds of volcanic rock, are the only ones in the area that 
yield Avater in sufficient quantity for irrigation, but several smaller 
springs are valuable as desert watering places. Among these are 
Antelope Spring, about 7 miles southeast of Black Rock, the Coj^ote 
Springs, about the same distance northeast of Black Rock, and a 
small spring north of North Twin Butte. There are also several 
springs in the mountains southwest of Black Rock and one small 
spring, know^n as Cricket Spring, on the west side of the Cricket 
Mountains.. 

WELLS. 
WELLS ON THE BEAVER BOTTOMS. 

Between Black Rock and Milford, Beaver Valley constitutes a 
low fiat area, known as the Beaver Bottoms, in which ground water 
occurs near the surface. Here a number of wells have been dug or 
drilled, and some of these wells overflow, but the water-bearing sedi- 
ments are fine, the yield is small, and the water is generally saline. 
Most of the wells are in Beaver County and have been discussed in 
the report on that region.^ 

GOSS WELL. 

The railway well at Goss is reported to be 1,775 feet deep and to 
end in granite. According to the section, which is show^n in Plate 
III and is given in detail in the following table, the material from 
the surface to a depth of 355 feet consists of clay or shale except at 
three horizons where sand or gravel occurs, and between the depths 
of 355 feet and 1,584 feet it consists almost exclusively of clay 
or shale. Salty water was obtained at depths of 195 feet and 350 
feet. The yield from the first horizon was about 1 gallon per 
minute, and from the second about 14 gallons per minute. Near the 
bottom large supplies were found, but the water, like that at higher 
horizons, is salty. AYhen 10-inch casing had been inserted to a 
depth of 1,555 feet the well is reported to have been pumped with 

1 Lee, W. T., Water resources of Beaver Valley, Utah ; Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. 
Survey No. 217, 1908, p. .30. 

90398°— wsp 277—11 7 



98 



GROUND WATEES IN WESTERN UTAH. 



a Sillett deep-well cable pump extending to a depth of 410 feet for 
15 hours continuously at a good many hundred gallons a minute 
AAdthout depleting the supply. Pumping at about 75 gallons per 
minute was continued for over a year in the hope that the quality 
of the water would be improved, but, as far as was ascertained, no 
improvement took place. So great, however, is the need for a supply 
at this point that the water, bad though it is, is used to some extent in 
locomotive boilers. 

Section of railroad well at Ooss. 



Clay 

Clay and gravel 

Sticky blue clay 

lay 

Blue waxy clay and brown sedimentary sand (salty water at 195 feet; 1 gallon per 

minute) ";; 

Blue clay 

Blue clay and shale 

Blue shale 

Blue clay 

Fine sand (salty water; 14 gallons pei minute; analysis given below) 

Gray shale 

Soapstone 

Brown waxy clay 

White clay 

Hard blue clay 

Hard soapstone 

Blue clay 

Silt shale 

Brown clay 

Brown clay and rock 

Rock 

Sedimentary stone 

Silt shale 

Shale 

Soapstone : 

Soapstone and bowlders 

Soapstone 

Cemented gravel 

Blue limestone 

Cemented gravel 

Blue limestone 

Blue limestone and yellow clay mixed. 

Granite (a soft streak between 1,770 and 1,773 feet is supposed to be the source of the 
large supply of water; analysis given below) 



Thick- 



Feet. 
12 
25 
32 
118 

15 
24 
18 
60 
46 
5 
59 

238 
96 
15 
93 
17 

347 
42 
38 
12 
10 
12 
48 
49 
83 
26 
44 
17 
4 
5 
22 
11 

132 



Analyses of loater from the Goss railroad toell. 
[Parts per million.^ Analyst, Herman Harms.] 



Total solids 

Siliceous matter (Si02) 

Oxides of iron and aluminum (Fe203+ AI2O3) 

Calcium carbonate (CaCOs) 

Calcium sulphate (CaS04) 

Magnesium carbonate (MgCOg) 

Sodium chloride (NaCl) 

Sodium sulphate (Na2S04), magnesium sulphate (MgSO^), sodium bicarbonate 
(Na2C0?), volatile, organic, undetermined, and loss 

1 Originally reported in grains per gallon. 



Sample 

from 

depth of 

350 feet, 

July 25, 

1906. 




LOWER BEAVER VALLEY. 



99 



NEELS WELL. 

The railway well at Neels, which is 1,998 feet deep, resembles the 
Goss well in that it passes through great thicknesses of clay or sliale 
and ends in granite. (See PL III and the log given below.) The 
projjortion of coarser sediments is, hoAvever, somewhat greater, and 
water was reported at no less than nine horizons. Six-inch casing 
was inserted to a depth of 1,425 feet. The largest supplies of water 
come from the thick beds of gravel and sandstone that occur at about 
this level, and it is reported that no water was found in the forma- 
tions below these. W. T. Lee ^ states that the well was pumped at 
260 to 300 gallons per minute during a test lasting continuously for 
24 hours ; H. C. Sillett, who has more recently tested the well for the 
railroad company, reports that with his deep-well cable j)ump, in 
which he used the entire 6-inch casing as the pump -cylinder, he was 
able to draw water at the remarkable rate of about 2,000 gallons per 
minute. The water from all horizons is salty. In three analyses re- 
ported by Mr. Lee, the chlorine content is, respectively, 1,065 parts, 
1,063 parts, and 863 parts per million, and the total solids are 3,336 
parts, 3,345 parts, and 2,888 parts per million. Beds of lava and 
volcanic ash occur at different depths, and the water that comes from 
the deep sources is hot. As in the Goss well, it was hoped that heavy 
and long continued pumping might improve the quality, but this 
hope was not realized. The well has now been abandoned. 

Section of railroad ircli at Vrr/.v.'"^ 



Thick- 
ness. 


Depth. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


4 


4 


5 


9 


40 


49 


9 


58 


21 


79 


6 


85 


3 


88 


11 


99 


39 


138 


4 


142 


12 


154 


34 


188 


7 


195 


3f) 


231 


12 


243 


12 


255 


6 


2()1 


25 


28R 


6 


292 


28 


320 


7 


327 


10 


337 


16 


353 


5 


358 


27 


385 


no 


495 


15 


510 


24 


534 


17 


551 



Surface soil 

Sedimentary (alkali) 

Fire clay 

Water-bearing quicksand 

Shale and soapstone 

Rock (sedimentary) 

Water-bearing quicksand 

Soapstone 

Soapstone with fossil bowlder; 

Water-bearing quicksand 

Fireclay. 



Blue waxy clay 

Gray shale and clay mixed. 

Gray waxy clay 

Lava rock 

Blue waxy clay 

Sedimentary sandstone 

Blue waxy clay 

Water-bearing quicksand . . 

Blue wa.xy clay 

Water-bearing'quicksand . . 

Sedimentary sandstone 

Yellow clay 

Water-bearing quicksand . . 

Yellow clay 

Blue waxy clay 

Yellow clay 

Sedimentary sandstone 

Blue waxy clay 



1 Water-supply Paper V. S. (Jool. Survey No. 217, 1908. 



Idem, p 



100 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

Section of railroad well at Neels — Continued. 



Soapstone 

Blue waxy clay 

Silt 

Water-bearing quicksand : 

Yellow clay ,... , 

Sedimentary sandstone , 

Yellow clay 

Blue waxy clay , 

Yellow clay 

Blue waxy clay 

Blue shale (sand mixed) 

Blue waxy clay 

Blue shale : 

Blue shale (sand mixed); yielded hot water 

Red shale 

Blue shale 

Red shale 

Blue shale 

Red "keel" stone '. 

Water, sand, gravel, and bowlders 

Sedimentary sandstone, brown 

Red sandstone 

Red shale, burned 

Trap rock, dark brown 

Red shale, burned 

Lava rock with calcite crystals , 

Red sandstone 

Red clay, sticky 

Volcanic deposit, ash, and bowlders; gas under pressure sufficient to raise 6,200 

pounds of tools 400 feet 

Bowlders, cemented 

Cavity 

gowlders 
avity • 

Granite with crevices and gas. 



Thick- 
ness. 



Feet. 
50 
11 

8 

3 

53 
12 
34 
117 

9 
210 
18 
13 
45 
71 
12 
70 
24 
28 

6 
70 
35 
95 
35 
36 
56 
14 
68 
48 

105 



Depth. 



Feet. 



601 
612 



623 



722 
839 
848 
1,058 
1,076 
1,089 
1,134 
1,205 
1,217 
1,287 
1,311 
1,339 
1,345 
1,415 
1,450 
1,645 
1,580 
1,616 
1,672 
1,686 
1,754 
1,802 

1,907 
1,913 
1,922 
1,944 
1,950 
1,998 



CLEAR LAKE WELL. 

At Clear Lake station a well was at one time drilled by the rail- 
way company, but it has long since been abandoned, and the data 
in regard to it are accordingly vague. Its depth was variously 
reported at 1,335 and 1,380 feet. Water was struck at several depths. 
According to some accounts the water overflowed with slight pressure, 
but according to others it remained 4 feet below the surface. No 
water flows from the well at present. The water was used for a 
number of years, but was too highly mineralized to be satisfactory 
for steam making, and the bad quality appears to be the reason for 
the disuse of the well. At present the culinary supply for Clear 
Lake is hauled from Oasis by the railroad company. 



SWAN LAKE FARM WELLS. 

On the Swan Lake farm (sec. 15, T. 19 S., E. 9 W.), about 6 miles 
west of Clear Lake, there is an old flowing well which is said to be 
about 600 feet deep and which yields a small amount of water. The 
water has a distinct taste and in a rough field test was found to con- 
tain about 500 parts per million of chlorine. The water is used at 
the ranch for culinary purposes. 



OLD KIVER BED AND CHERRY CREEK REGION. 101 

In a well drilled 4 miles farther west, at the headquarters of the 
Swan Lake farm (about sec. 13, T. 19 S., R. 10 W.), the strata 
penetrated were chiefly clay, but a number of sandy water-bearing 
beds were found, all of which yielded salty water and none of which 
gave rise to a flow. The drilling was carried to 365 feet below the 
surface, at which depth the hole was abandoned. 

Section of ahandoned well on the Swan LaJcc farm. 



Depth. 




Feet. 
Clay. 

Gravel (very salty water which stood 10 feet below the surface) 7 55 

Hardpan with thin layers of sand (salty water) I 65 I 120 

Soft light-blue clay 15 135 

Light-colored hardpan with 7 strata of sand, each 4 to 6 inches thick (small yield of 
salty water, which stood 17 feet below the surface) ." 



SHALLOW WELLS IN THE VALLEY BELOW BLACK ROCK. 

For some distance north of Black Rock the valley is narrow and 
there is no evidence of ground water. At Turner's ranch, where the 
surface water is to some extent entrapped between bars built by the 
ancient lake, there is a shallow dug well. On the low flat farther 
north the ground is generally saturated, especially in the vicinity of 
irrigated fields, and in many places seepages of poor water can be 
obtained near the surface. 

OLD RIVER BED AND CHERRY CREEK REGION. 

GENERAL FEATURES. 

Sevier Desert is inclosed on the north by a group of ranges which 
includes the Champlin, AYest Tintic, Simpson, McDowell, and Drum 
mountains. South of the Simpson Mountains lies a rugged area thai 
culminates in a cluster of bald peaks known locally as Desert Moun- 
tain, and south of the McDowell Mountains is a lava plateau which 
is bounded by precipitous walls and which stands prominently above 
the adjoining plain. (See PL I.) The low, flat area of Sevier Desert 
extends to the region east of this plateau, and farther north con- 
tracts into a narrow belt through which passes the Old River Bed. 
This constricted valley leads between the McDowell Mountains on 
one side and the Desert and Simpson mountains on the other, to 
Tooele County and the flat expanse surrounding Great Salt Lake. 
(See PL I.) 

Broad open plains extend from the low flat and the Old River Bed 
into the largest reentrants between the mountains, their surfaces 
rising gently but continuously toward the mountain borders where 



102 GROUND WATEKS UsT WESTERN UTAH. 

they have an elevation several hundred feet above the low flat or the 
Old River Bed. One of these amphitheaters extends between Desert 
Mountain and Simpson Mountains and opens to the Old River Bed. 
It has no recognized name, but as Judd Creek enters it from the north 
it can properly be designated Judd Creek Valley. A larger plain of 
the same character, sometimes called Cherry Creek Valley after the 
stream that flows into it, lies in the angle between Desert Mountain 
and the West Tintic and Champlin mountains, and leads out upon 
the low, marshy tract east of the lava bed. A third large valley lies 
between the McDowell Mountains, on the east, and the Thomas and 
Drum ranges, on the west, and leads southeastward to the Sevier 
Desert flat. 

When Lake Bonneville stood at its highest level its waters covered 
the low flat and the Old River Bed to a depth of 600 to 700 feet, and 
inundated the sandy bench to the east and the lower parts of all the 
principal valleys. Cherry Creek Valley and Judd Creek Valley were 
then bays, and the site of Rockwell's ranch was under water. Desert 
Mountain formed a rocky promontory connected with the mainland 
by an isthmus that extended between the bays just mentioned. The 
McDowell Mountains were completely surrounded by water and the 
numerous small buttes to the north formed an archipelago of rocky 
islands. The lava plateau was entirely submerged except for Fuma- 
role Butte, commonly known as " the crater," and a small butte 
farther northeast. (See fig. 2.) 

In the Provo stage the lake covered the low flat and Old River 
Bed and reached some distance up the central axes of Cherry Creek 
and Judd Creek valleys, but the lava plateau and the valley to the 
west were dry land, as is indicated in figure 2. Both the Bonneville 
and Provo shore lines are marked by beach ridges, terraces, and sea 
cliffs, and form easily recognized natural datum planes which assist 
in estimating the altitude and probable depth to water in any given 
locality. At a later stage, when the lake level was lowered still more, 
a stream flowed northward through the Old River Bed, as is described 
by Mr. Gilbert in his monograph on Lake Bonneville. 

The relation of the vegetation to the shore lines is significant. In 
some places shad scale predominates above the Provo shore line and 
greasewood below it. Owing to the seepage from the large gravel 
terraces, the vegetation at the foot of these terraces is more luxuriant 
than it is elsewhere, and greasewood and rabbit brush are dominant. 
Large sagebrush is found along arroyos through which freshets oc- 
casionally discharge, the soil here containing less alkali than in the 
low areas and receiving more moisture than in other parts of the 
bench lands. 



OLD RIVER BED AND CHERRY CREEK REGION. 103 

WATER SUPPLIES. 

The principal water supply in this region is furnished by Cherry 
Creek, which rises in the West Tintic Mountains and flows south- 
westward, as shown in Plate I. Upon this creek depends Rock- 
weirs ranch (NE. J sec. 30, T. 12 S., R. 5 W.), the so-called Com- 
2^any ranch (SW. | sec. 10, in the same township), and the pump- 
ing station (about 5 miles farther northeast), from which a pipe line 
leads to the Tintic mining district, 20 miles distant. Approximately 
150,000 gallons of water is pumped daily from Cherry Creek into 
Tintic Valley. Only enough water reaches the two ranches to supply 
the live stock and to irrigate small plats of land. 

This region contains a few other small mountain streams, among 
which may be mentioned Judd Creek, on the south flank of the 
Simpson Mountains, and a few isolated mountain springs, such as 
Keg Spring, on the north slope of the McDowell Mountains. None 
of these furnish much water, but they are valuable as watering places 
for live stock on the range. 

The only other source of water in this region is the Hot Springs 
situated at the east base of the lava plateau, where hot water issues 
in large quantities from mounds of variegated hues and gives 
rise to columns of vapor which, on favorable days, can be seen 
far out on the desert. Temperatures ranging from 110° to 178° F. 
were observed by Mr. Gilbert.^ Certain types of red, yellow, and 
green algae live in the hot water and are largely responsible for 
the bright colors that characterize the locality. The water is strongly 
saline, the amount of chlorine found in a field test being about 1,600 
parts per million. The combined yield from the different openings 
amounts to several hundred gallons per minute. The water flows 
unused to the swampy area east of the springs, but on its way, where 
sufficiently cooled, it produces a meager growth of poor grass. The 
large quantities of salt in the water and soil of the vicinity prevent 
the successful use of the water for irrigation. These springs proba- 
bly owe their origin to fissures in the lava bed and derive their high 
temperature from the residual heat retained by the lava at some 
depth below the surface. 

GROUND- WATER PROSPECTS. 

Owing to the lack of irrigation supplies and of other resources, 
this region remains almost without permanent inhabitiints, and hence 
there has been little incentive to dig or drill for ground water. 
Nevertheless in certain sections wells yielding good water could prob- 
ably be obtained by moderately -deep wells. 

1 Gilbert, G. K., Lake Bonneville: Mon. IJ. S. Gool. Survey, vol. 1, 1890, p. 333. 



104 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

Surrounding the Champlin Mountains and reaching to the foot 
of the West Tintic Range there is an extensive upland area, much of 
which is deeply buried in sand. Part of the water that falls as rain 
on this area sinks into the ground and is probably transmitted to 
beds of sand and gravel underlying Cherry Creek valley and the 
low belt of land that extends southward toward the Desert Wells. 
Much of the run-off from the west slope of the West Tintic Range 
sinks into the gravelh^ materials at its margin and is also added to 
the ground water below the valley. There are, therefore, rather good 
prospects for obtaining successful wells in the region that lies in gen- 
eral southwest of Rockwell's ranch, and the water that is found will 
probably be of good quality. However, it is not likely that the 
ground water stands greatly above the level of the low flat east of 
the lava plateau, and hence it is only on the lower parts of the slopes 
from the uplands that the prospects are good for getting water at 
moderate depths. In the low flat east of the lava plateau the ground- 
water level is near the surface and flows might possibly be obtained, 
but there is some danger that the sediments are here too fine to yield 
water freely or that the water is saline. The alkali in the soil and 
the poor drainage of the flat are unfavorable for irrigation with 
ground water even if satisfactory supplies could be developed. 

In the valley north of Desert Mountain, here called Judd Creek 
valley, the conditions are comparable to those in Cherry Creek val- 
ley. This valley receives a supply of ground water from the moun- 
tainous areas that border it on the north, east, and south, and the 
water is likely to be of good quality. Both the Bonneville and Provo 
shore lines are plainly traced upon the great amphitheater that com- 
prises this valley ; the Bonneville near the top and the Provo near the 
bottom. Below the Provo shore line there are prospects for obtain- 
ing successful wells at moderate depths. 

In that part of the Old River Bed that lies east of the McDowell 
Mountains there are no indications that the ground water comes to 
the surface, but the low altitude makes it probable that the ground- 
water level is within reach of ordinary drilling operations, and there 
are fairly good chances of obtaining successful wells along the site 
of this ancient stream channel. Mr. Gilbert's monograph on Lake 
Bonneville mentions an abandoned well, 100 feet deep, at the old stage 
station in the River Bed, a short distance beyond the north boundary 
of Juab County. 

DRUM AND SWASEY WASH REGION. 

WELLS AT JOY. 

In a pass through the Drum Mountains are located the Joy post 
office and Laird ranch, and near by is the Ibex mine, where a few 



DRUM AND SWASEY WASH REGION. 105 

miners are at work. This small settlement contains the only ])er- 
manent human inhabitants that will be found in going from Fish 
Springs to the settlements in Sevier Desert, or from Trout Creek, in 
Snake Valle}'', to Rockwell's ranch, on Cherry Creek. Here are two 
small but highly prized water supplies. One is at the ranch and 
comes from a tunnel and other shallow excavations. The other, 
about a mile farther northwest, is obtained from a well 30 feet deep, 
and is used by the freighters who operate between Fish Springs and 
Oasis, and also by the men at the Ibex mine. (See PL IV.) The con- 
ditions are here similar to those in the Tintic mining district. Where 
the porous rock waste has not been removed by erosion it collects rain 
water, and as this water can not penetrate the underlying firm 
igneous rock it forms seeps that can be tapped at favorable points. 
Evidently the best localities to prospect for supplies of this kind are 
where igneous rock occurs and where there is some indication of 
seepage at the surface. As in the Tintic district, the supply fluctu- 
ates with the rainfall, but, as far as is known, the wells have at no 
time dried up completely. 

OTHER WATER SUPPLIES. 

The barren and desolate region that surrounds Joy for many miles 
in all directions is nearly destitute of springs, Avells, or water supplies 
of any kind. The Hot Springs, to the east, and Keg Spring, far to 
the northeast, have been mentioned in describing the Old River Bed 
region (pp. 101-104) ; Wild Horse Spring is 15 miles northwest of 
Joy, in the Thomas -Range; Swasey Spring is 15 miles southwest of 
Joy, at the east margin of the House Range ; Antelope Spring is 5 
miles farther southwest, near the summit of this range; and a spring 
in Granite Canyon is 15 miles still farther south, in the same range. 
(See PI. IV.) In the area that lies between Fish Springs flat and 
White Valley on the west and the Old River Bed and Sevier River 
on the east these are the only springs worthy of mention. 

A prospector is reported to have struck water at a depth of 30 feet 
about 6 miles south of Joy, the conditions probably being similar to 
those at Joy. At the site of an abandoned smelter midway between 
Joy and Deseret, on the road that leads between Drum and Little 
Drum mountains, there is a well that consists of a hole dug to the 
depth of 90 feet and drilled with 1^-inch casing from this level to a 
total depth of 190 feet. The water rises through the casing and fills 
the dug hole to a level about 80 feet below the surface. The water is 
reported to be of good quality, but the yield is not large. This well, 
which is known as the Old Smelter well, forms one of the watering 
places for the freighters who haul ore from Fish Springs to Oasis. 



106 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

GROUND-WATER PROSPECTS. 

A large valley lies between the Drum and McDowell mountains 
and leads southeastward to Sevier Desert; a smaller valley lies be- 
tween the Drum and Little Drum mountains and likewise leads to 
Sevier Desert; and a large open valley, commonly known as Swasey 
Wash, intervenes between the Little Drum Mountains and the House 
Eange and leads in the same direction. All three of these valleys lie 
at considerable elevations above the ground-water level of Sevier 
Desert and their axes have pronounced gradients. They are there- 
fore probably drained of their ground water to great depths. 

The strata of the House Range form an eastward dipping mono- 
cline. On the west their edges are exposed and form an imposing 
escarpment overlooking White Valley; toward the east they grad- 
ually pass beneath alluvial and lake sediments. The debris-covered 
slope that extends from this range to the flat of Sevier Desert is 
remarkably wide and has a total descent of nearly 1,000 feet. There 
can be little doubt that the width of the slope is largely due to the 
underlying eastward-dipping rock strata. The prospects are not 
good for finding water below this slope. The unconsolidated sedi- 
ments are likely to be drained, and the limestone and quartzites, 
which lie below them in a large part of the area, are unpromising as 
sources of water. 

Successful wells may possibly be sunk at the foot of the slope that 
descends from the House Range and in the areas where the valleys 
mentioned above merge into the low flat of Sevier Desert. Here the 
ground-water level is likely to be within reach of the drill and 
coarse sediments containing fresh water probably exist. On the flat 
farther east there is more danger of encountering only fine lake 
sediments, which may not yield freely and whose water may be 
saline. 

SEVIER DESERT. 
PHYSIOGRAPHY. 

Sevier River, the only large stream that enters the region dis- 
cussed in this report, follows a devious course. Rising in the high 
plateau near the south boundary of the State it flows northward for 
nearly 150 miles in a structural trough, then turns and passes through 
Little Valley and Sevier Canyon, from which it emerges at Leam- 
ington; thence it flows southwestward through Sevier Desert and 
discharges into the alkaline waters of the playa-like lake that bears 
its name. (See PL I.) 

Like the numerous smaller streams of this region Sevier River has 
built an alluvial fan where it debouches from the mountains, though, 
in accordance with its greater volume of water, its fan is more ex- 



SEVIER DESERT. 107 

panded and has a gentler grade. When Sevier Desert was submerged 
beneath Lake Bonneville, the river deposits were built into a delta 
rather than into a fan, and thus a somewhat complex structure has 
resulted. In the Bonneville stage the lake level was so high that 
Little Valley contained a land-locked bay and Sevier Canyon became 
a strait (fig. 2), and under these conditions the bulk of the stream's 
load came to repose before reaching the Leamington area. In the 
Provo stage, which lasted for a long time, the water stood at a level 
more favorable for building a delta below the canyon. 

Sevier Desert may be regarded as consisting of two plains at differ- 
ent levels, the ascent from one to the other being steep enough to 
form a recognized topographic feature. The upper plain, commonly 
known as the Lynn bench, is essentially the ancient delta of Sevier 
River. It occupies the region on both sides of the river as far down- 
stream as the vicinity of Burtner. Here its margin swings back, on 
one side trending southeast toward the south end of the Canyon 
Range and on the other side trending somewhat east of north in the 
direction of Rockwell's ranch. The altitude of this delta plain is 
approximately that of the Provo shore line, being 4,790 feet above 
sea level at Lynn, 4,785 feet at Cline, and about 4,770 feet at the 
Burtner Dam. Since the subsidence of the lake Sevier River has 
carved a gorgelike valley out of the loose sediments of the delta. At 
the Burtner Dam the valley has two terraces, one about 20 feet below 
the upland, and the other about 75 feet lower, or about 40 feet above 
the present flood plain. The sides of the valley have the castellated 
appearance of badlands. The walls bordering the present flood plain 
are conspicuously steeper and more angular than those bordering the 
terraces. 

In the vicinity of Burtner, the river leaves its gorge and flows out 
upon the extensive low fiat that forms the lower plain of Sevier 
Desert. A few miles farther downstream its valley disappears 
entirely and it occupies a channel whose banks are on a level with 
the general surface of the plain or slightly higher. Here the stream 
is of the aggrading type and frequently changes its course, as is 
attested by many channels that meander over the plain and in many 
places form low ridges. In times of high water large portions of 
this lower plain are inundated and are converted into impassable 
swamps. Sevier Lake, however, lies at a lower level, and before 
reaching it the river occupies a definite though shallow valley. 

Sevier Desert is nearly surrounded by mountain ranges. The 
Canyon, Pavant, Beaver, Drum, McDowell, Desert, West Tintic, and 
Champlin ranges all form parts of the inclosing rock wall, and where 
gaps occur between these ranges other mountains rise in the back- 
ground. In contrast to the great relief and the rugged topogi'aphy 



108 



GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 



of the mountains, which are always in sight, the vast expanse of 
Sevier Desert appears flat and featureless and the difference in level 
between the Lynn bench and the lower plain is inconspicuous. The 
impression of flatness is heightened through the contrast afforded by 
the isolated volcanic buttes and mesas which here and there rise 
abruptly above the floor of the desert. The Lynn bench and the 
alluvial slopes adjoining the mountains give the desert a total relief 
of several hundred feet, the gorge in the Lynn bench is locally a 
conspicuous feature, and the sand dunes and abandoned stream chan- 
nels break to some extent the monotony of the general surface. 

RAINFALL. 

Eecords of precipitation at Deseret and Oak City are presented in 
the following table. In the 11 years for which the record at Deseret 
is complete, the annual precipitation ranged between 4.85 and 11.77 
inches, and averaged 8.15 inches, which is approximately the same as 
at Black Eock and Frisco, but is only one-half as much as at Levan 
and also substantially less than at Scipio, Fillmore, and Oak City. 
(See p. 19 and fig. 3.) As at other stations in this section of the 
country, the most rain falls in the spring and the least in the summer. 
(See fig. 4.) In an average year the precipitation at Deseret during 
the months of June, July, and August together is only about 1 inch. 

Precipitation (in inches) at Deseret. 



Years. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Total. 


1891 
















0.64 
.58 
.91 
.23 

Tr. 


0.62 
.06 
.46 

1.67 
.80 


0.05 
1.12 
.05 
.39 
.45 


0.00 
.10 
.14 
.00 
.84 


0.21 
.86 
.82 
.88 
.38 




1892 


0.53 
.54 
.35 
.40 
.32 


1.30 
.61 

1.35 
.53 


1.84 
1.85 
.53 
.63 
.29 


0.71 
1.40 
.64 
.84 
.47 


1.81 
.67 
.43 


0.14 

.00 

1.29 

Tr. 


0.42 
.21 
.25 

Tr. 


9.47 


1893 


7 66 


1894 


8.01 


1895 




1896 




1899 










Tr. 

1.12 
.03 
.40 
.67 
.32 

1.79 
.95 
.87 

2.00 


1.23 
.39 
.50 
.20 
.72 
.32 

Tr. 

Tr. 
.60 

2.15 


.34 

.48 

.04 

1.65 

Tr. 

.00 

1.25 

1.38 

.20 

.25 


.80 
.00 
.76 
.20 
.05 
.77 
.13 
.94 
.79 
.34 




1900 


.36 
.10 
-■48 
.94 
.15 
.42 
.31 
1.66 
.11 

.48 


.05 

1.67 

.30 

1.30 

.97 

1.25 

.41 

.82 

.80 


Tr. 

.80 

.82 

.40 

1.55 

1.06 

2.10 

1.00 

1.00 


2.85 

1.02 

.36 

.90 

.13 

1.36 

1.63 

.10 

.40 


.10 
1.90 

.32 
1.53 
2.13 
1.35 
1.06 
2.20 
1.10 


.03 
.62 
Tr. 
.40 
.60 
.00 
.19 
1.07 
1.22 


Tr. 
.03 
.08 

Tr. 

Tr. 
.00 

".'64' 


Tr. 

1.54 
.04 
.08 
.20 

1.15 
.63 
.29 
.57 


5.38 


1901. ... 


9.01 


1902 


4.85 


1903 


6.99 


1904 


7.14 


1905 


9.76 


1906 


11.77 


1907 


9.64 


1908 








Average 


.87 


1.07 


.91 


1.22 


,43 


.10 


.49 


.78 


.55 


.45 


.53 


8.15 



Precipitation (in inches) at Oak City. 



Years. 



Jan. 



Feb. 



Mar. 



Apr. 



May. 



June. 



July. 



Aug. 



Sept. 



Oct. 



Nov. 



Dec. 



Total. 



1905. 
1906. 
1907- 
1908. 



1.09 

1.80 

.66 



0.91 

1.80 

.71 



1.83 
3.49 
1.47 
1.15 



1.30 
3.28 



,57 



1.91 
2.31 

3! 29 



0.00 
.58 

1.37 
.59 



0.15 
.83 

1.04 
.56 



0.63 
1.56 
1.15 

.87 



2.29 



.91 
2.34 



0.15 
.27 



2.55 



1.55 

2.15 

.12 



.54 
1.64 
1.51 



19.05 
14.24 



SEVIER DESERT. 109 

GROUND- WATER LEVEL. 

Much of the water that falls as rain on the mountains and elevated 
valleys that encircle Sevier Desert migrates, either in surface streams 
or by underground percolation, toward the low interior. Thus, 
though in the high areas the ground water is at great depths or may 
be entirely drained away, in the low interior it has accumulated until 
it is practically at the surface. The lowest depression is that occu- 
pied by Sevier Lake, but the entire Sevier Desert except at Lynn 
bench and the alluvial slopes near the mountains is so nearly at a 
level that the ground water is everywhere near the surface, and 
swamps are found over large tracts extending north beyond the Hot 
Springs and east to Clear Lake and the region north of Pavant Butte. 
Sevier Desert thus acts as a huge evaporating pan for disposing of 
the accumulating water. In the Lake Bonneville stage, when the 
climate was more humid, the inflow of water was much greater and 
the rate of evaporation was probably less, with the result that .the 
water accumulated until this entire region was submerged to a depth 
of several hundred feet. 

The fact that this region is the receptacle of surplus surface and 
ground water and has at the same time an arid climate brings dry 
and wet areas unexpectedly close together. Thus in the most barren 
parts of the desert it may be necessary to dig down only a short dis- 
tance in order to find water, and where the water table comes to the 
surface the desert gives way to the swamp so suddenly that the 
traveler may find himself mired where a moment before all seemed 
dry. 

On the Lynn bench the water level is, of course, farther beloAv the 
surface, but it is probably not beyond the reach of ordinary drilling 
operations. In the valley at Leamington the ground water stands 
nearly at a level with the river, and in the well at Lynn it rises 
approximately to the river level, or within about 100 feet of the 
upland surface. 

SOIL. 

The soil and subsoil on the low flat are impregnated with alkalies 
left behind by the evaporating waters. The following table presents 
the results of analyses of samples of soil from two localities where 
conditions have not been modified by irrigation. The first sample 
was taken on the flat 5 J miles east of Oasis; the second, near the 
Desert Wells, 7 miles north of Burtner. On the higher ground of 
the Lynn bench and the slopes bordering the mountains the groimd 
water is not within the reach of evaporation, and for this reason 
the soil no doubt contains less alkali. 



110 



GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 



Analyses of soil m Sevier Desert. 
[Made by Bureau of Soils, U. S. Department of Agriculture.] 



Location. 



Depth 
within 


Soluble 


solids 


which the 


(alkaU), 


soil was 


per cent 


taken. 


of total. 


Feet. 




1 


- 0.3 


2 


3.1 


3 


2.6 


4 


2.4 


5 


2.0 


6 


2.6 


1 


1.3 


2 


1.6 


3 


1.7 


4 


.8 


5 


1.3 


6 


1.2 



Predominating salts in order named. 



No. 1, northeast corner of sec. 3, T. IS S., 
R. 6 W., 5|- miles east of Oasis, Utah. 



No. 2, sec. 1, T. 16 S., R. 7 W., 7 miles 
north of Burtner, Utah. 



Bicarbonates and chlorides. 
Sulphates and chlorides. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Carbonates and chlorides. 
Sulphates and chlorides. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 



VEGETATION. 



The native vegetation is, of course, all of the desert type, but it dif- 
fers radically in different sections, according to the degree of aridity, 
the amount of alkali in the soil, and the depth to ground water. 

On the Oak City and Fools Creek benches, where the aridity is 
not extreme and the soil is not overburdened with alkali, tall sage- 
brush predominates; on the uplands farther west, especially on the 
Lynn bench, where precipitation is less and conditions are perhaps 
more adverse in other respects, the sagebrush gives way largely to 
shad scale ; on most of the low flat, where there is little rainfall and 
much alkali, but where the ground water is near the surface, tall and 
luxurious greasewood predominates; on some of the low ridges 
formed by abandoned river channels, where conditions differ some- 
what from those on the alkali flat through which these ridges mean- 
der, the greasewood is largely displaced by rabbit brush, and an aban- 
doned channel can sometimes be traced long distances by such a band 
of yellow-topped brush winding through the monotonous expanse of 
greasewood ; in a few areas, generally near springs, patches of grass 
are maintaining themselves; and in the impassable salt marshes, 
salt brush holds undisputed possession. The only tracts where condi- 
tions seem to be so adverse that no sort of vegetation is able to obtain 
a foothold are certain low flats which are usually dry, but which at 
irregular intervals become submerged, with the result that they are 
alternately extremely dry and extremely wet. The soil, samples 
whose analyses are given were taken in localities where greasewood 
is dominant. 

IRRIGATION. 

The water from Sevier River is used for irrigation at Leamington, 
Mack, Burtner, Oasis, Deseret, Hinkley, Abraham, and Swan Lake. 



SEVIER DESERT. Ill 

These communities have in the past been compelled to contend with 
two adverse conditions — the breaking of reservoirs and the presence 
of alkali in the soil. Below Leamington, where the sides and bottom 
of the river valley consist of unconsolidated material, dams built 
across the valley have frequently been washed out. The remedy for 
this difficulty, after much unfortunate experience, is being found in 
constructing reservoirs farther upstream where rock walls and bot- 
tom offer more secure dam sites. The difficulty with alkali has been 
chronic. With light irrigation the alkali has become concentrated at 
the surface; with copious irrigation it has been temporarily carried 
down, but water-logging has resulted. The United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture has recently made a survey of the region with a 
view to having established an effective system of underdrainage, by 
means of which the alkali can.be washed away. 

WATER-BEARING BEDS. 

That this region has been filled to a depth of many hundreds of 
feet Avith stream and lake sediments is demonstrated by the deep 
railroad wells at Oasis, Neels, and Goss. Some of these sediments 
have been washed from adjacent mountain sides, but most of them 
have j^robably been brought by Sevier Kiver. In as far as they are 
derived from Sevier River it would be expected that they would be 
coarse near the point where the river comes out of the mountains 
and very fine in localities most remote from this point, because an 
aggrading stream deposits its load of gravel and sand first and 
holds the fine grains of clay in suspension longest. A gradation of 
this kind is suggested b}^ Plate III: The section at Lynn is made 
up largely of gravel and sand; that at Oasis contains numerous beds 
of sand; at Swan Lake farm and Neels the sections have a smaller 
proportion of sand, and the sand is mostly of the fine-grained variety 
reported as quicksand ; the section at Goss, still farther from the base 
of supply, consists for hundreds of feet of almost nothing but clay. 
Since the water-yielding capacity of a bed decreases with the size 
of its constituent grains, it might be expected that the prospects of 
getting wells with good yield would be best near the point where 
the Sevier comes out of the mountains and poorest in the areas most 
remote from this point, and the well data given in the ensuing para- 
graphs indicate that this is the case. 

WELLS ON THE LYNN BENCH AND CANYON MOUNTAIN SLOPE. 

The railroad well at Lynn is of special interest because it is the 
only well on the Lj^nn bench. It ends in coarse gravel at a depth 



112 



GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 



of 235 feet and is cased with 12-inch pipe to a depth of 225 feet.^ 
When completed, in 1905, it was pumped continuously for 11 hours 
at the rate of 108 gallons per minute. 



Section of railroad well at Lynn, Utah. 



Thick- 



Depth. 



Clay 

Gravel 

Sand 

Sand and gravel 

Sand 

Blue clay 

Blue sandy clay, water-bearing 

Sand 

Coarse gravel, water-bearing. . . 



Feet. 



Feet. 



10 


18 


12 


30 


10 


40 


20 


60 


95 


155 


60 


215 


10 


225 


10 


235 



In the valley at Leamington a group of dug wells, about 20 to 25 
feet deep, yield plenty of water for domestic use, but have not been 
given any severe tests. About 1 J miles southeast of Leamington there 
is a good well 45 feet deep, belonging to Emil Anderson, but farther 
south on the alluvial slope of the Canyon Range there are no wells. 
At Fools Creek settlement two holes have been dug, one 145 feet and 
the other 110 feet deep, and at Oak City a hole was sunk to the depth 
of 70 feet. In all three of these excavations gravel and coarse sand 
were passed through but work was stopped before the water level was 
reached. 

There is reason to believe that water-bearing beds of sand and 
gravel exist in most places below the Lynn bench and the lower part 
of the slope on which Oak City and Fools Creek are situated. 

WELLS ON THE LOW FLAT. 

On the low flat in the vicinity of Deseret, Oasis, Hinkley, Burtner, 
and Abraham, several hundred successful wells have been sunk. 
Though water is found within a few feet of the surface, most of the 
wells are between 100 and 200 feet deep, many are between 200 and 
300 feet deep, and a few go to still greater depths. The new railroad 
well at Oasis was carried to a depth of TlO feet. 

The strata penetrated consist essentially of unconsolidated and 
frequently alternating beds of clay and sand with no bowlders and 
almost no gravel. The clay preponderates but there are numerous 
beds of sand of sufficient thickness and coarseness of grain to supply 
water freely. Several well sections are given to illustrate the char- 
acter of the strata. 



1 Lee, W. T., Water resources of Beaver Valley, Utah : Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. 
Survey No. 217, 1908, p. 34. 



SEVIER DESERT. 



113 



Section of S. W. Western's flotcinf/ rceJl at Deseret, Utah. 




Depth. 



Sandy loam (salty water at 12 feet) 

Red gumbo clay 

White chalk 

Gravel 

Red joint clay 

Clay and sand alternating (salty water which did not flow) 

Light blue clay 

Sand (flow of sulphurous water. Some of the oldest wells end in this stratum) 

Dark clay 

Fine yellow sand (flow of soft water, less sulphurous. Many wells end in this stratum) 
Clay and sand alternating, the clav layers about 3 to 4 feet and the sand beds about 

one-half foot thick (flows of good water from aU the sand beds) 

Blue clay 

Dark coarse sand (flow of one-half gallon a minute of soft water, slightly sulphurous; 

head about 1 foot above the surface) entered 



Feet. 



20 

34 

40 

42 

62 

130 

160 

164 

167 

210 

234 
237 

239 



Section of E. J. WhieJcer's tcell near Burtner, Utah {sec. 23, T. 11 S., R. 7 W.). 



Depth. 



Clay vnth some sand 

Hafdpan 

Soft clay \\-ith thin layers of sand 

Coarse sand 

Clay and sand in thin layers — 

Soft clay 

Light-colored clay 

Clay 

Mud or silt 

Clav 

Sand 

Clay 

Sand 

Clay 

Red sand 

Hardpan 

Soft clay. ^. 

Sand...... 

Gumbo 

Red and blue clay 

Clay with thin bed of sand 

Soft, light-colored clay 

Sand entered. 



Feet. 



19 

29 

42 

57 

69 

79 

89 

94 

100 

104 

110 

115 

119 

127 

128 

129 

137 

140 

146 

154 

171 

187 



Section of deep railroad ivell at Oasis.^ 



Alternating beds of clay and sand, similar to the sections already given. 
Sand 



Blue clay 

Red clay 

Sand 

Sandstone 

Blue clay 

Sand 

Red clay 

Blue clay 

Quicksand 

Clay and sand 

Black sand : 

Clay and gravel 

Clay 

Cerhented gravel . . . 

Soft sandstone 

Clay 

Rock 

Clay 

White clay 

Clay, chiefly yellow 




Depth. 



Feet. 



335 
350 
370 
395 
408 
412 
480 
491 
500 
527 
530 
559 
562 
575 
598 
610 
617 
623 
625 
640 
656 
710 



1 Lee. W. T. Water resources of Beaver Valley, Utah: Water-Supply Paper U. S. GeoL Survey No. 217. 
1908, pp. 33-34. 



903U8°— wsp 277—11 8 



114 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

Nearly all of the successful wells are within 10 miles of the margin 
of the Lynn bench. The farthest north is a group of wells north of 
Abraham, several recently drilled wells near the north margin of 
T. 16 S., R. 7 W., and the Desert Wells, near the northeast corner of 
T. 16 S., R. 7 W. Toward the west wells are found approximately 
to a line extending from Abraham southward to the river. Toward 
the south they are found a few miles south of Deseret and Oasis. To- 
ward the east they are found for" several miles beyond Burtner and 
Oasis, and a well was once drilled about 8 miles east of Oasis. Suc- 
cessful wells could probably be obtained farther north and east. In 
the region south and southwest of the limits outlined, at greater dis- 
tances from the Lynn bench, considerable drilling has been done, but 
it was almost invariably unsuccessful. The conditions at Swan Lake, 
Clear Lake, Neels, and Goss. are discussed on pages 97 to 101. 

The deep railroad well drilled at Oasis in 1905 is 10 to 12 inches in 
diameter and 710 feet deep. It passes through a number of water- 
bearing beds of sand, 10 of which gave rise to flows. At a depth of 
335 feet a 15-foot stratum of sand was struck and a flow of about 
30 gallons a minute was obtained. In a pumping test the well is 
reported to have supplied 200 gallons a minute with but slight lower- 
ing of the water level. The last part of the drilling was in clay, 
which yielded no water. 

ARTESIAN CONDITIONS. 

In a large proportion of the wells of this region the water rises 
above the surface. Commonly, ground water is reached in these wells 
at a depth of only a few feet; as work continues, the drill passes 
through successive beds of water-bearing sand which are separated 
from each other by layers of clay. The water in these beds is under 
artesian pressure, and as lower beds are reached the artesian pressure 
increases slightly until beds may be tapped from which the water 
rises to the surface or a few feet higher. S. W. Western's well in 
Deseret is typical. Here the first water was found at 12 feet, and 
below this level water-bearing beds were passed through at short in- 
tervals until the drilling was stopped at the depth of 240 feet. The 
Avater did not rise to the surface until a depth of 160 feet was reached, 
below which every water-bearing bed gave rise to a flow. From no 
horizon in this well was the water under much pressure nor the yield 
large. In the deep railroad well at Oasis the most copious flow was 
obtained after the depth of 335 feet was reached. 

Throughout the entire low flat portion of Sevier Desert the head 
of water coincides so nearly with the surface of the land that a swell 
or depression almost too gentle to be discerned is sufficient to make 



SEVIER DESERT. 115 

the difference between a flowing and a nonflowing well. Flows are 
obtained in Oasis and in the region immediately north of that village. 
Exceptionally strong flows are found east of Oasis for about 3 miles, 
and the abandoned Phillips well, about 8 miles east, indicated that 
there may here be a considerable area in which wells would obtain 
flowing water. Flows are found in most of Deseret, and for about 
4 miles up the river to sec. 15, T. 17 S., R. 7 W., also north and 
west of Deseret to a distance of several miles, and in the region be- 
tween Deseret and Hinkley. In most of the wells in Hinkley the 
water does not rise quite to the surface, but at the north end of this 
village there are several flowing wells. South of Deseret and Oasis 
flows have been obtained nearly as far as Van, but farther south 
attempts to get flows have generally been unsuccessful, though there 
is one isolated flowing well on the Swan Lake farm, nearly 15 miles 
southwest of Deseret. (See PI. I.) 

Another area in which flows have been obtained is north of the 
river near the margin of the Lynn bench. (See PL I.) It contains 
the group of flowing wells known as the Desert Wells. This area is 
limited on the east by the high ground of the Lynn bench and on the 
south by a tongue of elevated land that extends westward from this 
bench between the wells and the river. Toward the west and north 
there is low ground with prospects for flows. However, only 3 
miles east of the Desert Wells there is a well, belonging to Bruce 
Seely, which is 182 feet deep and in which the water stands 12 feet 
below the surface, and IJ miles farther northwest there is a well 
which is 130 feet deep and in which the water stands 14 feet below 
the surface. 

All of the flowing wells with the possible exception of the one on 
the Swan Lake farm have a relation to the Lynn bench. This large, 
level, elevated, and sandy region is the principal catchment area 
from which the water is supplied to the beds of sand that extend be- 
neath the adjacent low flat. Hence, the artesian pressure is best on 
that part of the flat that lies nearest this bench, and, in spite of the 
fact that the surface continues to descend, flows are not generally 
obtained beyond a certain distance from the foot of the bench. The 
head of water is about 4,700 feet above sea level at Lynn, 4,625 feet 
at Burtner, 4,600 feet at Oasis, and less than 4,600 feet farther south- 
west. 

QUALITY or WATER. 

The water from the railroad well at Lynn contains only moderate 
amounts of dissolved mineral matter, and most of the ground water 
below the Lynn bench and the slope of the Canyon Range will 
probabl}^ be found to be fairly good. 



116 GBOUND WATERS IN" WESTERN UTAH. 

Analysis of water from railroad well at Lynn, Utah. 
[Parts per million.^ Analyst, Herman Harms.] 

Total solids 559 

Siliceous matter (Si02) 93 

Oxides of iron and alnminum (Fe203+'Al203) 9 

Calcium carbonate (CaCOs)— 136 

Calcium sulphate (CaS04) Trace. 

Magnesium carbonate (MgCOs) 85 

Sodium chloride (NaCl) 149 

Magnesium sulphate (MgSO*), sodium sulphate (Na2S04), 

volatile, organic and loss 87 

Throughout the low flat area the shallow ground water is saline, 
but in most of the localities in which drilling has been done the deeper 
beds contain water that is relatively soft and not perceptibly saline. 
Thus in the wat^ from the flowing well of David Day in Oasis the 
chlorine content is only 37 parts per million; in the water from 
the Desert wells, 75 parts ; in the water from the well of Bruce Seely, 
3 miles west of the Desert wells, 63 parts ; and in the water from the 
well of Peter Christensen, northwest of Abraham (SE. J sec. 15, 
T. 16 S., K. 8 W.), 108 parts. In S. W. Western's well, already 
referred to as showing typical conditions for the vicinity of Deseret 
and Oasis, salty water is reported to a depth of 130 feet, but fresh 
water from all lower beds. 

The following is an analysis, made in September, 1910, of the water 
from the Jensen artesian well, in the northern part of Deseret, Utah. 
The water is commercially known as the Deseret lithia water. The 
lithium was not separately determined : 

Analysis of water from Jensen artesian well. 
[Parts per million. Analyst, James R. Bailey.] 

Total solids 581 

Silica (SiOa) 48 

Iron (Fe) .1 

Aluminum (Al) .1 

Calcium (Ca) 3.3 

Magnesium (Mg) 1.0 

Sodium (Na) 209 

Potassium (K) 7.8 

Carbonate radicle (CO3) 22 

Bicarbonate radicle (HCO3) ; : - 429 

Sulphate radicle (SO,) 28 

Chlorine (CI) 42 

Nitrate radicle (NO3) .6 

Most of the deep water contains hydrogen sulphide gas, which is 
given off in small bubbles when the water comes to the surface. The 

1 Originally reported in grains per gallon. 



WAH WAH VALLEY. 117 

stratum which in Deseret and Oasis nsnally gives rise to the first 
flow, and which was struck at the depth of 100 feet in AVestern's well, 
seems to be especially strongly charged with this gas. 

In the southern part of Sevier Desert saline water has generally 
been found at all depths penetrated by the drill. The flowing well of 
P. N. Peterson, 1 mile northeast of Van, is 258 feet deep and yields 
water that contains about 675 parts per million of chlorine. On the 
farm of J. V. Conk, 4 miles southwest of Deseret, three wells have 
been drilled, the deepest going to the depth of 227 feet, but the water 
found was all salty. Deep wells have been drilled at Swan Lake, 
Clear Lake, Neels, and Goss in the hope of finding good water, but 
none of these wells has been successful. 

The following analysis of water from the railroad well at Oasis 
is not typical of the best deep water of the region. There is some 
reason for believing that water from shallow sources enters this well. 

Analysis of water from railroad irell at Oasis. 
[Parts per million. ^ Analyst, Herman Harms.] 

Total solids 1, 325 

Siliceous matter (Si02) 45 

Oxides of iron and aluminum (FeoOsH-AluO:;) 3 

Calcium carbonate (CaCOs) 54 

Calcium sulphate (CaS04) 45 

Magnesium carbonate (MgCOs) 75 

Sodium chloride (NaCl) 804 

Magnesium sulphate (MgS04), sodium sulphate (NajSO^), 

volatile, organic, and loss , 239 

WAH WAH VALLEY. 

GENERAL FEATURES. 

Wah Wah Valley, which on the old maps is called Preuss Valley, is 
bordered on the east by the San Francisco Mountains and on the 
west by the AVah Wah Range and the southern extension of the Con- 
fusion Mountains. It lies chiefly in Beaver County, but its lower 
part extends into Millard County and leads to Sevier Lake. (See 
PI. I.) It is a wide, open valley Avitli large alluvial slopes and so 
few topographic irregularities that from a single vantage point the 
eye can sweep a large part of its area. In the Bonneville stage the 
waters of the ancient lake extended far up this valley and formed a 
distinct strand on its sides ; in the Provo stage the lake occupied only 
the lower part. (See fig. 2.) The axis of the valley descends sev- 
eral hundred feet from its upper end to Sevier Lake, but in one 
locality between Newhouse and Sevier Lake there is an obstruction 
back of which a playa has formed. Wah AYah Valley can consist- 

1 Originally reported in grains per gallon. 



118 



GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 



ently be considered to end with this playa, but it is convenient here 
to discuss the entire area to the south end of Sevier Lake. West of 
the lower part of this structural trough and tributary to it lies an 
extensive and rugged upland area which contains several soil-covered 
valleys of considerable size. 

SOIL. 

Samples of soil were taken at the point where the road from 
Blkck Kock to Ibex crosses the axis of the valley, and these samples 
were analyzed by the United States Bureau of Soils, with the results 
shown in the following table. This crossing is below the Provo 
shore line and below the playa, but well above Sevier Lake and at 
a point where the valley has considerable gradient, as is shown by 
the presence of a dry channel 

Analysis of soil south of Lake Sevier. 



Depth 


Soluhle 


within 


substances 


which the 


(all^ali). 


soil was 


Per cent of 


taken. 


total. 


Feet. 




1 


0.5 


2 


.9 


3 


1.0 


4 


1.2 


5 


,9 


6 


1.3 



Predominating salts in order 
named. 



Chlorides and carbonates. 
Sidphates and chlorides. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 
Chlorides and sulphates. 



RAINFALL. 

No rainfall observations are recorded by the United States Weather 
Bureau for Wah Wah Valley, but aridity is plainly shown by the 
vegetation and surface features. At Black Rock and Frisco th3 aver- 
age annual precipitation is between 8 and 9 inches, and at Garrison 
it is still less. This amount of rainfall has thus far not proved suffi- 
cient for dry farming. The data for Frisco are given in the following 
table: 

Precipitation {in incites) at F^'isco. 



Years. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Total. 


1897 




0.30 
.10 
.65 
.04 

2.36 
.02 

1.66 
.64 

1.44 
.56 
.42 


0.44 
.12 

2.56 
.03 
..28 
.72 
.68 
.97 

1.71 


Tr. 

0.41 

1.01 

1.73 

.86 

.10 

1.49 

.10 

.58 


0.20 

2.59 

.08 

"i."42" 
Tr. 

1.88. 
2.49 
1.44 


0.11 
.11 
.36 
.04 
.97 
Tr. 
.66 
.11 
.02 


0.16 
.97 
.81 
Tr. 

1.76 
.74 
.72 
.86 
.58 


0.19 

1.46 
.18 
.05 
.64 
.82 

1.12 
.83 

1.04 


1.21 
.00 
Tr. 

1.41 
Tr. 
.47 
.82 
.45 

2.32 


1.50 
.31 
.51 

.77 
.68 
.15 
.85 
.41 
.89 


0.45 
.15 
.28 
.55 
Tr. 

1.22 
.02 
.00 
.83 
.98 


1.00 
.24 
Tr. 
.05 
.75 
.39 
. 07 
.22 
.30 
.95 




1898 

1899 


0.<2 
.10 
.11 
.35 
.95 
.75 
.50 
.66 
.10 

1.12 


6.88 
6.54 


1900 




1901 


10.07 


1902 


5.58 


1903 


10.72 


1904 . . . 


7.58 


1905 


11.81 


1906 . . 




1907 


.60 
1.30 


.00 
.30 
















1908 


1.58 


.49 


,42 


1.00 


1.87 


1.57 


.00 


.60 












Average 


























8.45 































SEVIER LAKE BOTTOMS. 119 

WATER SUPPLIES. 

Wah Wah Valley is entirely destitute of an irrigation supply and 
contains very few watering places for man or beast. AVah Wah 
Spring — the only spring of consequence in the region — is situated in 
Beaver County, on the west side of the valley, and its water is led by 
gravity through a pipe line to Newhouse, a mining town on the east 
side. At Kelley's, a short distance north of Wah Wah Spring, a 
small supply has been developed from surficial sources. 

GROUND-WATER PROSPECTS. 

Conditions are not favorable for finding ground water in this re- 
gion. Beneath the broad slopes that flank the valley water is almost 
certainly at a great depth, and may be entirely absent. Even along 
the axis of the valley the gradient is in most places so steep and the 
altitude so much higher than that of Sevier Lake that it is not likely 
that water would be found near the surface. At the playa the drain- 
age is evidently checked, but there may be no underground structure 
competent to impound the water that percolates beneath the surface. 
A drill hole was at one time put down in the valley west of Newhouse 
with the hope of obtaining a supply for that town. Detailed infor- 
mation could not be obtained, but it is known that the project proved 
unsuccessful. 

In the elevated valleys to the west the rock waste is as a rule not 
deep, and the underljdng formations consist chiefly of limestones and 
quartzites which are likely to allow the ground water to escape. 
Small supplies may exist in basins lined with igneous rock, but the 
chances of finding any such supplies are poor. 

SEVIER LAKE BOTTOMS. 
FLUCTUATIONS OF THE LAKE LEVEL. 

The Pleistocene Lake Bonneville is now represented only by a few 
small isolated sheets of water and swampy areas that occupy the 
lowest depressions of the ancient lake bottom. Sevier Lake is the 
largest oi these residual water bodies in the area covered by this re- 
port. It receives supplies from Sevier River and loses them by 
evaporation. As the amount of evaporation depends on the water 
area, the size of the lake is an expression of equilibrium between 
inflow and evaporation, between gain and loss. 

Mr. Gilbert, in his monograph on Lake Bonneville, states that 
Sevier Lake was first explored and accurately mapped in 1872 by 
R. L. Hoxie and Louis Nell, of the "^Mieeler Survey, and that at that 
time it was about 28 miles long; its water surface was 188 square 



120 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

miles in extent; its maximum depth was about 15 feet, and its out- 
line that indicated in Plate I. He also states that in January, 1880, 
the lake was virtually dry and its bed was crossed on foot where the 
water had been deepest. 

A large part of the water that would normally flow into the lake is 
now diverted for irrigation and that which still reaches the lake repre- 
sents an economic loss that should, as far as possible, be stopped. To 
save all of the water of Sevier Eiver in years of heavy rainfall would, 
however, require a very much greater storage capacity than is re- 
quired in years of light or even average precipitation. In 1880 and 
in several preceding years the water of the river was so nearly 
monopolized by irrigators that the lake dried up, but since that time, 
in spite of probable increased use for irrigation, a surplus has again 
accumulated. The outline of the lake shown in Plate I is copied from 
a map of Utah compiled by Gilbert Thompson in 1899.^ In the au- 
tumns of 1908 and 1909 a lake existed which was somewhat larger than 
that indicated in Plate I, but whose margin was separated from the 
shore line of 1872 by a flat miry belt. The outline of the north end 
of the lake in 1908 is shown on the topographic map of the Fish 
Springs quadrangle. (See PL IV.) 

POSITION OF THE LAKE. 

Sevier Lake occupies the lowest depression in the Sevier drainage 
basin, but this depression is not in the interior of the desert plain, 
remote from mountain masses, but in a relatively narrow trough 
between the House and Cricket ranges. The reason for this position 
is evident. Originally the lowest depression may have been farther 
from the elevated areas, but the basin was filled to great depths 
with sediments brought chiefly by Sevier Eiver, and the quantity of 
material deposited varied inversely with the distance from the point 
where the river made its exit from the mountains. This was true 
both when the river discharged into Lake Bonneville and when it 
was an aggrading stream building an alluvial fan. Hence the local- 
ity most remote from the river's exit received the least sediment, was 
built up the most slowly, and eventually remained at the lowest level. 
This most remote locality is the present site of Sevier Lake. 

QUALITY or THE LAKE WATER. 

The water of the lake is too saline to be used as a supply for live 
stock. In 1872, in connection with the Wheeler Survey, a sample 
was taken at a point on the west shore remote from the inflow, and 
this sample Was analyzed by Dr. O. Loew, with the results shown in 

1 Gannett, Henry, A gazetteer of Utah ; Bull U. S. Geol. Survey No. 166, 1900, PI. I. 



WHITE VALLEY. 121 

the following table.^ During the periods that the lake was dry 
some of the deposited salt was probably covered with mud or dust 
which later prevented it from being redissolved. On the other hand, 
the quantity of water is at present less than in 1872, and this fact 
tends to make the concentration greater. 

Analysis of water in Sevier Lake.^ 



I Percent- 
age coni- 
Partsper position 
million, j of the an- 
hydrous 
I residue. 



Total solids 

Calcium (Ca) 

Magnesium (Mg) 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K). 

Sulphate radicle (SCO 

Chlorine (CI) 



86,400 
120 
2,100 
28,900 
17,580 
37,700 



0.14 
2.43 
33.45 
20.35 
43.63 



100. 00 



a Recalculated from hypothetical compounds in grains per gallon. 
GROUND-WATER PROSPECTS. 

The sediments brought to Sevier Lake Avere not only meager in 
quantity but fine grained in character, and hence they are unpromis- 
ing as a source of water supply. The conditions are similar to those 
on the opposite side of the Cricket Mountains, where unsuccessful 
railroad wells were drilled. Nevertheless some coarse material was 
washed down from the adjacent ranges and this material may con- 
tain supplies of fresh water. Gravelly water-bearing lenses are most 
likely to be found at the base of alluvial fans heading in the largest 
canyons, out of which have come the most gravel and the most water. 

WHITE VALLEY. 
GENERAL FEATURES. 

White Valley occupies a closed basin more than GO miles long and 
about 900 square miles in area. It is bordered on the west by the 
Confusion Range, which separates it from Snake Valley, and on the 
east by the House Range, which separates it from Sevier Desert. 
(See PI. IV.) 

The central flat of the valley is about 4,400 feet above sea level. 
The loftiest part of the inclosing mountain rim is formed by the 
House Range, whose two highest peaks are Antelope Mountain and 
Granite Peak, respectively 9,580 feet and 9,725 feet above sea level, 
or about one mile above the valley flat. The lowest notch in the rim 
is at Sand Pass, between the House and Fish Spring ranges, where 
the altitude is between 4,700 and 4,800 feet. 

^Geog. and Geol. Surveys W. 100th Mer., vol. 3, 1875, p. 114. 



122 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

The strata of the bordering mountains consist chiefly of Paleozoic 
limestones and quartzites. In the House Range they dip toward the 
east, away from the valley, and their outcropping edges form a steep, 
rugged westward-facing wall which for many miles towers precipi- 
tously above the valley flat. In the northern part of the Confusion 
Range the dip is also toward the east, which here is toward the val- 
ley, and the slope from the mountains to the central flat is relatively 
wide and gentle, like the east slope of the House Range. Hence the 
valley is asymmetrical, the lowest part lying near the base of the 
more lofty range. (See PI. IV.) 

The lowest part of the valley constitutes a nearly flat area, many 
miles long and several miles in average width. In some parts a 
miniature eolian topography is imposed upon this flat surface, a 
fantastic landscape being produced by the presence of innumerable 
hummocks, the tallest of which are 12 to 15 feet high. These hum- 
mocks consist chiefly of residual clay held in place by clumps of salt 
bush or other vegetation, while the surrounding surface has been 
lowered by wind erosion. In other parts of the flat, probably the 
lowest tracts where flood waters occasionally collect, the surface is 
smooth and quite destitute of vegetation of any sort. Toward the 
south the valley becomes more constricted and trough-like, but the 
central axis remains low and, with some interruptions, retains its 
playa character. At the tapering south end it is hemmed in by rock 
walls. ' 

When Lake Bonneville existed. White Valley contained a large bay, 
which, during both the Bonneville and Provo stages, was connected 
with the main body of the lake by narrow straits at the north end. 
After the water was lowered a short distance beneath the Provo level, 
the straits were drained and the bay was converted into a lake that 
had no outlet. 

White Valley is uninhabited. Although there are no records of 
precipitation in the valley, the sparseness of the desert vegetation and 
the scarcity of water plainly indicate aridity. Almost the only use 
made of the region is for sheep grazing, the flocks being brought in 
during the winter when the light snowfall helps to solve the problem 
of water supply. Ibex, a winter supply station for sheep herders, is 
situated a few miles west of the southern extremity of the valley. 
At this point an attempt at dry farming, thus far unsuccessful, is 
being made. 

SPRINGS. 

The White Valley drainage basin has no permanent streams and 
only a few small springs. Two seepage springs are reported near 
the base of the Confusion Range. One of these, known as Skunk 
Spring, is said to be about 5 miles east and 1 mile south of the sum- 



WHITE VALLEY. 123 

mit of Cowboy Pass; the other, known as Gregory Spring, about 
8 miles farther south. Though they are small and little known, they 
are valuable watering places for stock on the range. 

Antelope Spring is situated in the House Range, about 1 mile east 
of the divide and one-half mile north of the road leading from Snake 
Valley to Oasis. (See PI. IV.) It yields several gallons per minute 
of good water and is a valuable watering place for travelers. 

A group of small springs, including Coyote, Willow, Tule, and 
South Tule Springs, occur in the low part of the valley. (See PL IV.) 
They are all on the central flat, west of the axis of the valley and 
near the base of the long slope from the Confusion Range. Coyote 
Spring consists of a circular depression in which tules- are growing. 
This depression contains water which is evidently supplied from un- 
derground sources but which was not overflowing at the time the 
spring was seen. The water, though perceptibly mineralized, is used 
for drinking and for watering live stock. The other springs of the 
group are said to be similar to Coyote Spring. Like Antelope Spring, 
these springs are used as watering places by persons traveling be- 
tween Snake Valley and the settlements in Sevier Desert. 

At Ibex there is no spring, but storm water collected from a steep 
mountain side is stored in reservoirs formed out of natural cavities in 
the rock. 

GROUND-WATER PROSPECTS. 

There are no wells in this valley, but it is not improbable that in 
certain localities ground water could be found. The topographic 
map (PI. IV) shows that the central flat is about 4,400 feet above sea 
level, which is not only far below the surrounding uplands but also 
slightly beloAv the level of Sevier Lake, 200 feet below the level of 
the flowing district surrounding Deseret, 300 to 500 feet below the 
water level in Snake Valley, and only slightly above the surface of 
Fish Springs Flat and the south end of Great Salt Lake Desert. 
Obviously the ground water of this valley does not escape to the sur- 
rounding valleys, and it is therefore probable that it has accumulated 
in the sediments below the central flat, a condition also indicated by 
the group of springs on this flat. 

Beneath the flat the sediments may be too fine to yield water freely 
or too heavily charged with alkali to furnish water of good quality. 
The chances of obtaining satisfactory supplies are better near the foot 
of the slopes, where the elevation is not much greater than on the flat 
but where the sedments are likely to be coarser and less strongly im- 
pregnated with alkali. Localities near the mouths of the largest 
canyons are the most promising. The central part of the tapering 
southern appendage of the valley has a low altitude nearly to the 
south end, and may have ground water at moderate depths. 



124 GBOUNB WATERS IK WESTEEK UTAH. 

Most of the extensive west slope and the steep east slope of the 
valley lie so high above the flat that their ground water is no doubt 
either far below the surface or entirely drained away. In the ele- 
vated tributary valleys near the south end the prospects of finding 
ground water, except at great depths, are also poor, especially where 
limestones and quartzites are present and igneous rocks are absent. 

FISH SPRINGS VALLEY. 

GENERAL FEATURES. 

Fish Springs Valley is bounded on the east by the Thomas Range 
and on the west by the Fish Springs Range. Both of these ranges 
consist of westward-dipping limestones and quartzites with associated 
masses of volcanic rock, the latter being especially abundant in the 
Thomas Range. On the east side of the valley the rocks dip toward 
the center of the valley and the slope is correspondingly wide and 
gentle. This slope is continuous with the high tract that shuts in 
the valley on the south, and slope and high tract together form a large 
upland area. On the west side of the valley the strata have appar- 
ently been faulted up and their outcropping edges form a precipitous 
mountain wall at the base of which is a steep and narrow alluvial 
slope that diminishes in size toward the north until it almost disap- 
pears. At the foot of the slopes from the east, south, and west is a 
broad swampy alkali flat that merges on the north with the desolate 
expanse of Great Salt Lake Desert. The only permanent inhabitant 
in this drainage basin of nearly 400 square miles, is to be found at 
Thomas's ranch, near the northwestern extremity of the valley, but 
the Fish Springs and Drum mining camps are located on the moun- 
tain rim, just beyond the divides. (See PI. lY.) 

SPRINGS. 

No permanent streams rise in the mountains, and the only mountain 
spring worthy of mention is Wildhorse Spring in the main Thomas 
Range, 4 miles south and 11 miles east of Thomas's ranch. However, 
in the central flat, near the base of the Fish Springs Range, there is a 
group of springs some of which are large. 

The Hot Springs, which are located on the fiat a short distance 
from the north end of the Fish Springs Range and less than 1 mile 
south of the Tooele County line, include a group of tuffaceous mounds 
with vents from which water is flowing, or has flowed in the past. 
Hydrostatic equilibrium exists between the water in the different 
springs, and hence the springs that have the highest mounds have 



FISH SPRINGS VALLEY. 125 

only a small yield or are extinct, while the most copious flow observed 
comes from a vent around which almost no mound has yet been built, 
and which therefore discharges at a lower level. The spring that 
supplies the bathhouse issues from a mound about 25 feet in diame- 
ter and yields several gallons per minute. The water has a tempera- 
ture of 104° F., is highly mineralized, and deposits incrustations of 
salt. The water from the large spring has a much higher tempera- 
ture. A variety of colors, including red, brown, bright green, olive 
green, and black, are displayed in the vicinity. They are due to 
chemical precipitates and to filamentary algae that thrive in the hot 
water. The large mounds that yield little or no water are distin- 
guished by their bright red color, which is probably due to more com- 
plete oxidation of the precipitates at these places than in the vicinity 
of more active springs. 

Between the Hot Springs and the mountain there are two small 
springs that yield water of lower temperature, and about 1 mile 
southeast of the Hot Springs is the Big Spring. The latter is 
located on the flat within a fcAv yards of the foot of the mountain, 
the alluvial slope here being virtually absent. It consists of a deep 
pool which has vertical or overhanging walls, and is filled with clear 
water that issues at the rate of several hundred gallons per minute. 
Other springs are located at Thomas's ranch and between the ranch 
and Big Spring, and a number of large springs issue along a line 
extending to a little over a mile south of the ranch. Most of these 
springs, like the Big Spring, consist of deep, steep-sided pools filled 
with clear water, which is supplied from underground sources and 
which rises by artesian pressure and overflows at a nearly constant 
rate. The pools are inhabit ated by small fish for which the springs 
are named. 

Although these springs are known as " cold springs," in distinc- 
tion from the Hot Springs, they are thermal in the sense that the tem- 
perature of their water is higher than the normal temperature of the 
shallow ground water of the region. The water in the spring at the 
ranch has a temperature of 78° F., which is nearly 30 degrees above 
normal. This water is not excessively mineralized and is freely used 
for drinking. 

About 7 miles south of Thomas's ranch is Cane Spring, which 
consists of a number of seeps at the base of the alluvial slope. The 
water is highly mineralized but is used for live stock and forms 
one of the supplies for the freighters operating between the Utah 
mine and Oasis. 

The Devils Hole, which is near Cane Spring but a little farther 
up the slope, is a deep circular hole filled with water within 10 or 
15 feet of the top. Beneath the Avater surface, which is about 15 
feet in diameter, the walls are overhanging, as in some of the pools 



126 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

of the Fish Springs. This hole has been described by G. K. Gilbert,^ 
who states that " it appears to be due to the undermining action of 
subterranean currents flowing in channels sufficiently open to permit 
the removal of even coarse detritus, and the salinity of the water 
suggests that these channels may have been opened by the solution 
of deposits of salt." 

The Fish Springs Eange has evidently been produced by faulting, 
the break in the strata occurring along the east side. Moreover, 
very recent faulting is shown by a small fresh scarp which runs 
parallel to the east margin of the range and in which the alluvial 
and lacustrine sediments have been displaced.^ The linear arrange- 
ment of the Fish Springs along the east side of the range, together 
with their high temperature and copious yield, suggests that their, 
origin may be associated with the fault. 

WATER IN UTAH MINE. 

The Utah mine, which is near the north end of the Fish Springs 
Eange, was sunk through limestone near a contact of intrusive rock. 
It appears that the first water was found between the depths of 
800 and 820 feet, which is somewhat lower than the level of the 
springs in the valley. The water comes in small quantities from 
crevices in the rock. It contains a large amount of common salt, 
but it is the only supply at the mine and is used for drinking and 
other purposes. 

Analysis of water from Utah mine.^ 

[Parts per million ; analyst, C. C. Crismon ; date, September, 1901.] 

Total solids 2, 255 

Volatile and organic matter 239 

Silica (SiOs) 18 

Oxides of iron and aluminum (FeoOs+ALOs) 13 

Calcium (Ca) 64 

Magnesium (Mg) 67 

Sodium and potassium (Na+K) 591 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 164 

Chlorine (CI) 1,096 

GROUND-WATER PROSPECTS. 

In general the best chances of obtaining satisfactory wells are at 
the base of the slopes, near the margin of the central flat (PL IV). 
Beneath the flat itself the ground water is probably near the sur- 
face but it is likely to be poor in quality and, if fine-grained lake 

1 United States Geog. and Geol. Surveys W. lOOth Mer., vol. 3, 1875, p. 110. 

2 Gilbert, G. K., Lake Bonneville : Mon. U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 1, p. 353. 

3 Recalculated from hypothetical combinations in grains per gallon. 



SNAKE VALLEY. 127 

sediments prevail, its yield is likely to be small. Farther up the 
slopes the water probably stands at great depths or has been drained 
away entirely. Small supplies, similar to those developed at Joy, 
may exist near the surface in certain localities in the hills and 
mountains to the east and south where igneous rocks occur. 

SNAKE VALLEY. 
GENERAL FEATURES. 

Snake Valley is a structural trough that trends in a direction some- 
what east of north. (See Pis. I and IV.) From its head, in Nevada, 
it extends diagonally across the State line, passes through the 
western parts of Millard and Juab counties, and opens upon Great 
Salt Lake Desert'. On the east it is bordered by the low, barren 
ridges of the Confusion Range; on the west, by the lofty Deep 
Creek Range, in western Juab County, and by high mountains 
farther southwest in Nevada. The length of this trough from the 
vicinity of Burbank to where it merges into Great Salt Lake Desert, 
near the Tooele County line, is about 80 miles, and its total drainage 
area within the State of Utah is approximately 2,000 square miles. 
Its axis descends toward the north but not with equal gradient in 
all parts. (See PL IV.) The valley may be considered to consist of 
three sections : The upper section includes the part south of Garrison 
and is sometimes called " Lake Valley," the middle section stretches 
from Garrison to Trout Creek and forms Snake Valley proper; the 
lower section extends north from Trout Creek. The middle and 
lower sections are shown in Plate IV. 

In the highest stage of Lake Bonneville the lower and middle 
sections of Snake Valley contained a large bay (fig. 2) and the upper 
section was traversed by a tributary river described as follows by 
Mr. Gilbert:^ 

A large channel whose habit Indicates a stream comparable with the smaller 
rivers of the basin, enters Snake Valley from the south at a point just east of 
AVheeler Pealv, known as the Snake Valley settlement [Garrison]. The channel 
ends at the margin of the old lake, and appears to have contained a stream tribu- 
tary to the lake, which disappeared at the same time. It is now occupied near 
the settlement by a streamlet from the adjacent mountain known as Lake Creek, 
but this enters the channel at its side, and played no important part in its 
formation. Above its confluence the channel has essentially the same dimen- 
sions, and these continue as far as it was traced, about 20 miles from its mouth. 

In the Provo stage the middle section was virtually drained and the 
bay extended only a short distance south of Trout Creek. 

Conspicuous shore features were constructed by the waves in Snake 
Valley Bay. Especially characteristic are large terraces bordered 
on the outside by heavy embankments resembling railroad grades and 

1 Lake Bonneville : Mon. U. S. Gcol. Survey, vol. 1, 1890, pp. 184, 185. 



128 



GKOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 



forming " natural reservoirs." So perfect and regular are these em- 
bankments that they are believed by some of the inhabitants of the 
region to represent the labors of an ancient people. 

RAINFALL AND VEGETATION. 

The rainfall records of the United States Weather Bureau, given 
in the following table, although not very comprehensive, plainly in- 
dicate an arid climate, the precipitation in some years being less than 
5 inches. These records are corroborated by the character of the 
native vegetation. The broad, gravelly slopes that flank the valley 
on both sides contain only a meager cover of dry, stunted bushes. 
In the axial portion of the valley, where ground water is near the 
surface, rabbit brush, greasewood, and salt brush are found, the domi- 
nating type among these three in any locality depending largely on 
the amount of alkali in the soil. The Confusion Eange, like the 
Basin ranges that lie farther east, is notably barren; but the Deep 
Creek Range, which is several thousand feet higher, supports large 
trees and evidently receives more moisture than either the valley or 
the Confusion Range. 

Precipitation {in inches) in Snake Valley. 
Garrison. 



Years. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Total. 


1903 


0.66 
.07 
.37 


0.60 
1.49 
1.30 
Tr. 
.55 
.89 


0.20 
.62 
.30 

2.47 
.90 
.16 


0.38. 

.06 

.99 
1.58 

Tr. 

.10 


1.16 
.97 

1.83 
.77 
.42 
.47 


0.54 
.41 
Tr. 
.06 
.20 
.10 


0.05 
.93 
.10 
.33 
.21 
.65 


0.55 
.95 
.83 

"'.'65" 
.56 


0.38 
.55 
.85 
.50 
.05 


0.23 
.94 
.00 
.10 
.64 

1.41 


Tr. 
0.00 
2.14 
1.98 
.49 
.33 


Tr. 
0.22 
.11 
.58 
.20 
.26 


4.75 


1904 


7.21 


1905 


8.82 


1906 




1907 


.64 
.25 


4.35 


1908 








Average 


~ .40 


.81 


.77 


.52 


.94 


.22 


.38 


.59 


.47 


.55 


.83 


.23 


6.28 



Trout Creek. 



Years. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Total. 


1905 




1.45 
.43 
.51 

1.40 


0.95 

.92 

1.05 


0.25 

1.18 

.00 


0.60 

1.92 

.79 


0.00 

1.70 

.69 


0.00 
.28 
Tr. 


0.75 
1.00 
1.56 


1.67 

1.22 

.37 


0.00 

1.20 

.52 


1.25 
2.20 
Tr. 


0.23 
.15 
.95 




1906 


0.14 

1.85 

.50 


12.34 


1907 


8.28 


1908. 





























Callao. 



Years. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


TotaL 


1902 






















0.44 
.16 
.00 


0.28 
.07 
.05 




1903 

1904 


0.50 
1.50 
.05 


"6." 83" 


"i.'ie" 


Tr. 
0.28 


2.56 
.77 


■i.'52' 


0.05 
Tr. 


Tr. 
0.54 


0.31 
.36 


0.18 
.76 


""7.'77 


1905 































SNAKE VALLEY. 



129 



Precipitation {in inches) in Snake Valley — Continued. 
Fish Springs (Utah Mine). 





Years. 


1 Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Total. 


1899, , ' 


















2.40 


0.37 


0.73 




1900 




... 0.05 
22 


0.80 


0.05 


4.65 


0.20 


0.07 
.24 


6.70 
.25 


Tr. 
Tr. 


1.37 
.00 


.42 






1901 


















1 i ■ 





SPRINGS AND STREAMS. 

Some parts of Snake Valley have flowing water during most of 
the year, but other parts of the axial region are normally dry or are 
occupied by alkali flats or salt marshes. If the climate were humid, 
or perhaps if it were only somewhat less arid, a permanent stream 
would flow through the entire length of the valley. The barren 
Confusion Range has no streams and is almost destitute of springs, 
but the loftier and better-watered mountains west of the valley give 
rise to a number of small irrigation streams. In the succeeding para- 
graphs the different streams and springs are described in the order 
in which they are found in passing northward through the valley. 

Big Spring and Lake Creek. — Big Spring is situated in Nevada, 
about 10 miles up the valley from Burbank. The water issues in 
large volume from gravel not far from a limestone cliff that borders 
the valley on the west. This water appears to be of good quality. 
Its temperature was found to be 63.5° F. The spring gives rise to 
Lake Creek, which flows northeastward to the Burbank settlement 
and into the reservoir shown in Plate I. For some miles below the 
Big Spring smaller springs well out of the gravel and help to aug- 
ment the size of the creek. The flow of the creek below these springs 
is reported to be 18 second-feet. The water is used for irrigation on 
six ranches at Burbank, above the reservoir, and on five ranches at 
Garrison, below the reservoir, but its duty is apparently low. A 
mile or more south of the reservoir a large spring, known as Burbank 
Spring, issues from the gravelly bench on the east side of the valley 
and supplies water of good quality, the temperature of which is 
57° F. Another spring exists in the same vicinity, but nearer the 
creek. 

Snake Creek. — A small stream, known as Snake Creek (PI. I), 
rises in the mountains west of Garrison and furnishes the irriiration 
supply for two ranches at this settlement. Its flow is largely pro- 
vided by the melting of snow at high altitudes. 

Baker Creek. — About 7 miles north of Garrison, Baker Creek enters 
the valley from the west. (See PL I.) Its surplus waters Join those 
from Snake and Lake creeks and flow northward along the axis of 
the valley toward Conger's ranch, producing a swamp}^ tract. There 
are also springs in the vicinity of Conger's ranch, and small springs, 
known as Cane Springs, occur several miles west. 
90398°— wsp 277—11 9 



130 GEOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

Knoll Springs. — The Knoll Springs comprise several groups of 
springs Avhich are arranged along a north-south line. They are 
on the east side of the valley, but on low ground. (See PL IV.) The 
southernmost group is near the road leading from Meecham's ranch 
to Cowboy Pass, about 7 miles east-northeast of the ranch. Some of 
these springs consist of pools with overhanging walls, but more char- 
acteristic are those that consist of mounds, or knolls, near the top of 
which the water issues. The largest of these knolls are over 100 feet 
in diameter and more than 10 feet high. Apparently the knolls have 
been built over pools by the growth of vegetation and the accumu- 
lation of dust, as is explained on pages 44 and 45. 

The shelves of the pool springs tremble when they are stepped upon, 
and horses or cattle that venture too far out on them are likely to 
break through and become mired, but the knolls are so firmly built 
that they can be traversed with impunity by man and beast. As far 
as was observed, none of the springs has a large fioAv, but those which 
have no knolls or only small ones, and which therefore issue near 
the level of the normal land surface, yield more than those which 
discharge at a higher level near the tops of well-developed knolls. 

The water does not seem to be highly mineralized. From some of 
the springs bubbles of hydrogen sulphide were seen to escape, prob- 
ably resulting from the decomposition of the vegetable matter with 
which the springs are surrounded. The temperature of the water in 
one spring was found to be 70.5° F. 

Kell Springs^ etc. — About halfway between Smithville and But- 
son's ranch, along the road to Garrison, are four springs known as 
the Kell Springs (PL IV). They are on the west side of the valley 
but not greatlj^ above the central flat. The most northerly of the 
group consists of a swampy seepage area, about 30 feet in diameter, 
covered with water cress. Water that is cool and good to the taste 
flows from the spring, but is soon lost by seepage and evaporation. 
A short distance southeast of this spring there is a mound, approxi- 
mately 75 feet long, 30 feet wide, and 5 feet high, from an orifice at 
the top of which a small quantity of water issues. A few rods farther 
south is a small pool of clear water overgrown AAdth cress, the flow 
from which amounts to several gallons per minute. The water is 
good to the taste and has a temperature of 58° F. A few rods still 
farther south there is a mound, more than 100 feet long and perhaps 
5 feet high, from three points near the margin of which water flows 
at the rate of several gallons per minute. 

At Butson's ranch a small spring of good cold water issues from a 
gravelly bank on the valley slope and a small amount of water comes 
from a canyon to the west. Other streams in the vicinity are Henry 
Creek, used for irrigation on Meecham's and Simonson's ranches, and 
Smith Creek, used on George Bishop's ranch at Smithville. 



SNAKE VALLEY. 131 

Warm Springs. — A mile or more west of Gandy post office, which 
is situated high up on the alluvial slope on the west side of the valley, 
there is a small mountain that consists of distorted and steeply dip- 
ping limestone strata. The Warm Springs issue from crevices in 
the rock at the base of the precipitous south slope of this mountain, 
and give rise to a stream (PL I) that is estimated to be larger than 
Lake Creek, and whose flow is said to be independent of seasonal 
changes. The temperature of the water coming from the largest 
vents is 81.5° F. Calcareous precipitates are found in large quanti- 
ties at the springs, and they form thick incrustations on the sides and 
bottom of the stream channel. Deposits of this kind in the vicinity 
of the springs show that water once issued at points that are now dr}^ 
Algae and water cress abound in the stream. The water appears to 
be only moderately mineralized and is used for domestic purposes 
and for irrigation on the ranch of James Robison, on the fields of 
a small Indian settlement near by, and on a ranch farther down the 
valley. The total acreage irrigated is not large, and the water is 
evidently not doing full duty. 

Springs at Footers ranch. — A large group of pool and knoll springs 
is situated on low ground on the east side of the valley, between 1 
and 2 miles south and southeast of Foote's ranch, which is in sec. 
9, T. 16 S., R. 18 W. (See PL lY.) Most of the pools are sur- 
rounded and partly inclosed by marginal shelves, and their clear 
waters are inhabited by small fish. The largest knolls are about 10 
feet high. The flow of these springs is not noticeably affected by 
seasonal changes, and their total yield amounts to a number of sec- 
ond-feet. The water appears to be of good quality, and its tempera- 
ture, in five springs that were tested, ranges between 66.5° and 68° F. 
The spring having the largest yield consists of a pool which is about 
125 feet in diameter and is said to be 40 feet deep. 

Springs bordering the Salt Marsh. — Numerous springs are found 
on the west side of the Salt Marsh, which lies north of Foote's ranch. 
Some of these springs consist of small pools, but in others the water 
seeps or wells up directly from the porous ground. None are large, 
but together they yield much water. The temperature of the water 
in the so-called Cold Spring is 55° F., and in the spring at C. A. 
Conklin's (the old Gandy ranch) it is 58° F. Neither of these is of 
the pool type. 

The flow of these springs is said to be least in the summer and 
greatest in the fall. In the fall and winter the Salt Marsh fills with 
water, Avhich disappears in the summer, but this may be due more 
largely to a difference in the rate of evaporaton than to differences 
in the yield of the springs. 

Springs between Salt Marsh ami Trout Creek. — North of the -Salt 
Marsh the axial part of the valley contains a number of pool springs 



132 GEOUND WATEKS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

which discharge into swampy tracts. The largest spring of this 
group that was observed is at Miller's ranch, about 8 miles south of 
Trout Creek. It consists of an oval pool about 125 feet long and 75 
feet wide, around which a dam several feet high has been built. The 
discharge from this pool is several hundred gallons per minute. The 
water does not appear to be highly mineralized. Its temperature at 
the outlet was found to be 64° F. 

Springs at Trout Creek. — In the lowest part of the valley, at Trout 
Creek post office, there is an area of seeps and small springs some of 
which are of the pool type. The temperature of the water in one 
spring was found to be 55° F. 

Springs and streams in Pleasant Valley. — Pleasant Valley heads 
in Nevada and leads southeastward to Snake Valley, which it enters 
between Trout Creek and Gandy. (See PL I.) A small stream which 
issues from Water Canyon, to the north, furnishes the irrigation 
supply at Henroid's ranch, and other canyons furnish still smaller 
supplies. Along the axis of the valley there are numerous springs 
some of which yield copiously. 

Streams from the Deep Greek Range. — Deep Creek Eange is ex- 
ceptional among the basin ranges of the region in that it gives rise to 
a number of permanent streams (PL IV). Some of these are on the 
west side and are tributary to Deep Creek, which flows northward 
into Tooele County; others drain the east slope and provide small 
quantities of irrigation water for the lower section of Snake Valley. 
The waters of Birch Creek and Trout Creek are led to the Trout 
Creek settlement where they furnish the irrigation supply for two 
ranches, and the waters of Indian Farm Creek, Thoms Creek, and 
Basin Creek are led to Callao where they supply three ranches. 

Willow Springs and similar springs farther north. — At Callao, 
near the Tooele County line, there is a swampy area that contains a 
labyrinth of pool springs of various sizes, together known as the 
Willow Springs. Some of the pools barely overflow but others give 
rise to vigorous streams. They contain fish and abound in water 
cress. Kedding Spring, another large spring of the pool type, is 
situated 6 miles farther north. 

Character of the springs. — From the foregoing account it is evi- 
dent that this valley, from Big Spring, 10 miles south of Burbank, 
to Redding Spring, 6 miles north of Callao, is characterized by an 
abundance of large springs, most of which, together with the Fish 
Springs and Hot Springs, exhibit certain traits in common. 

Not only are many of the springs large, a number yielding over one 
second-foot and a few yielding several times this amount, but, 
according to local reports, the flow of the large springs is not affected 
by seasonal changes. 



SNAKE VALLEY. 133 

The pools and knolls are distinctive of the group, though they do 
not include the Big Spring nor the AVarm Springs, which are the 
largest springs in the valley. The pools and knolls are found only 
on low ground, not much above the bottom of the valley, but the 
Warm Spring is at a much higher level. Characteristic of the pools 
are their depth, their overhanging shelves, the fish they contain, and 
the abundance of water cress and other vegetation that they support. 

Characteristic also of many of the pools, and of the Big Spring 
and Warm Springs as well, is the high temperature of their water. 
The mean annual temperature of this region is about 50° F., in con- 
trast with which the following maximum temperatures were observed 
in springs: 

Temperature {°F.) of spring tcatcr in Snake and Fish Springs vaUeys. 

Hot Springs Near boiling. 

Warm Springs 81.5 

Fish Springs (small spring at Thomas's ranch) 78.0 

Knoll Springs , 70.5 

Springs at Foote's ranch 68.0 

Spring at Miller's ranch 64.0 

Big Spring 63.5 

Considerable difference in temperature usually exists among the 
different springs of the same group, the warmest water being where 
the flow is most copious. This relation was found, for example^ in 
the Hot Springs, Warm Springs, and springs at Foote's ranch. The 
temperature of the water in large pools with little discharge is no 
doubt affected by atmospheric conditions. 

The origin of these springs is discussed on pages 43-45. 

WELLS AND GROUND-WATER PROSPECTS. 

Burhanh. — In the valley of Lake Creek, above the reservoir, the 
ground- water level is near the surface, and shallow dug, drilled, or 
driven wells yield copious supplies of good water. On the farm of 
B. P. Hockman, 2 miles north and one-half mile east of Burbank 
post office, two wells have been drilled on ground only a few^ feet 
above the creek level, one to a depth of 18 feet and the other to a 
depth of 40 feet. In sinking these wells alternate beds of clay, sand, 
and gravel were passed through. The first water was struck at the 
depth of 9 feet and at 18 feet a good supply that rose by artesian 
pressure within 4 feet of the surface was obtained. 

Considerable quantities of ground water no doubt exist in this part 
of the valley and could be made available for irrigation by a small 
lift, but it is improbable that good artesian wells could be obtained. 
In the lower part of AVhite Sage Valley (also known as Antelope 
Valley), pump wells can probably be obtained at moderate depths, 



134 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

but in the middle and upper parts of this valley the ground water 
is likely to be far below the surface or to be drained away entirely. 

Gamson. — In the vicinity of Garrison the depth to water de- 
creases toward the north. In this part of the valley a number of 
wells have been sunk, most of which have fallen into disuse. Aban- 
doned wells are reported as follows: SE. \ SW. J sec. 6, T. 22 S., 
E. 19 W., a dug well 40 feet deep; SW. \ SE. \ sec. 31, T. 21 S., E. 
19 W., a dug well 35 feet deep ; SE. \ SE. \ sec. 31, T. 21 S., E. 19 
W., a dug well 30 feet deep ; NW. \ SW. \ sec. 32, T. 21 S., E. 19 W., 
a dug well 15 feet deep. A well at the hotel, sunk almost entirely 
through gravel, receives a small supply of water from seepage near 
the bottom. At the south end of the settlement (SE. \ NW. \ sec. 7, 
T. 22 S., E. 19 W.), two unsuccessful attempts were made to obtain 
flows. One hole is reported to have been sunk to a depth of nearly 
200 feet, at which level bedrock was struck. 

Betxoeen Garrison and Conger'' s ranch. — The old Conger ranch is 
situated in a low, swampy area that receives the drainage from the 
creeks farther up the valley. At this point a well was drilled which 
is said to have reached a depth of more than 100 feet and to have 
found a supply of good water that rose within 3 feet of the surface. 

In the low tract traversed by Baker Creek ground water could 
probably be found in some abundance, and it is possible that in the 
lowest parts flows would be struck. The large branch valley on the 
east side of Snake Valley, and heading in the direction of Ibex, re- 
ceives less water than Baker Creek Valley, but up to some distance 
beyond the 5, 000- foot contour, as shown in Plate IV, there is a reason- 
able chance of obtaining wells at moderate depths and with supplies 
sufficiently large for stock purposes. 

• Between Conger'^s ranch and Trout Creeh. — In the entire stretch 
between Conger's ranch and Trout Creek the ground is saturated 
with water virtually to the level of the surface along the axis of the 
valley, and wells can probably be obtained on the central flat and 
near the foot of the alluvial slopes, especially on the west side. 

A number of shallow wells sunk on the west side of the valley yield 
water of satisfactory quality and in sufficient amount for domestic 
and stock purposes. On the ranch of William Meecham (sec. 21, T. 
18 S., E. 19 W.) , situated about 90 feet above the center of the valley, 
there is a dug well 28 feet deep which yields water that is somewhat 
hard, but otherwise good. Two similar wells, one 12 feet and the 
other 18 feet deep, are situated at a little lower level on this ranch, 
and a well of the same type supplies Simonson's ranch in the same 
locality. 

On the ranch of George Bishop (NW. \ sec. 3, T. 17 S., E. 19 W.), 
there are two dug wells, one 35 feet and the other about 45 feet deep. 
The water level here fluctuates considerably, and the wells, at first 



SNAKE VALLEY. 135 

more shallow, have been deepened several times to procure a perma- 
nent supply. The water is hard but otherwise good and is used for 
drinking and for culinary purposes. 

At the old Barry ranch, near the banks of the Salt Marsh, there is 
an abandoned dug well in which the water stood 14 feet below the 
surface. 

The two ranches at Trout Creek, situated near the central axis of 
the valley, obtain their culinary supply from wells 15 feet deep in 
which the Avater level fluctuates with the season. The water in these 
wells is considered of good quality though harder than the stream 
water. On Alfred Bishop's ranch a 2-inch well was at one time sunk 
to a depth of over 200 feet in quest of flowing water, but the project 
w^as not successful. 

Pleasant Valley. — Several wells sunk in Pleasant Valley obtain 
satisfactory culinary supplies, but attempts to get flows in this valley 
have thus far been unsuccessful. 

Trout Creek to Callao. — Trout Creek is situated in a constricted 
part of Snake Valley, south of which the valley trough is rela- 
tively flat and swampy, but north of which it descends at a rate 
of about 25 feet per mile until it begins to merge with the desert 
flat. North of Trout Creek the benches on either side of the valley 
are high and wide and the valley proper is relatively low. These 
high benches, especially the one on the west side, receive large con- 
tributions of water which is transmitted to lower levels, and there 
is therefore reason to expect that in the lower parts of the valley 
good supplies can be obtained at moderate depths. Probably, how- 
ever, the axial gradient is too great to allow the ground water to 
accumulate under sufficient head to give rise to flows. 

The only well reported in this region is a 50- foot dug well on the 
claim of Harry Parker, near the center of the valley, not far from 
the line between sees. 34 and 35, T. 12 S., R. IT W. Most of the 
material excavated in sinking this Avell was compact cla}^, but near 
the bottom, quicksand, sand, and water-bearing gravel were found. 
The yield is reported to be ample and the quality satisfactory, but 
the water is under little or no artesian pressure. 

Callao. — In the northern part of Juab County, Snake Valley ex- 
pands into Great Salt Lake Desert and a large alluvial slope extends 
from the Deep Creek Range to the desert flat. In the vicinity of 
Callao, where the slope from the mountains gives way to the dead 
level of the desert, and where the Willow Springs, already described, 
are located, a number of flowing and nonflowing wells have been 
sunk. Ground water is here reached within a few feet of the sur- 
face, as, for example, in the dug well of E. W. Tripp, which is only 
12 feet deep and is filled with water to within 3 feet of the surface. 



^V V 



136 GEOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

The flowing wells are 1^ to 2 inches in diameter and range from 
about 40 to 175 feet in depth. Their section consists of clay, sand, 
and gravel, the largest flows thus far obtained coming from coarse 
gravel at depths of 90 to 100 feet. In most wells the water rises 
only a few feet above the surface, but original heads of 15 feet and 
more are reported. Toward the west the flowing area is sharply 
limited by the rise in the surface of the land. Flows are obtained 
on F. G. Kearney's and E. E. Bagley's ranches, but farther west the 
water remains below the surface. Toward the east, in the direction 
of the desert, the limits of the flowing area are less definitely known, 
but satisfactory flows have been obtained as far as 2 miles east of 
the Kearney ranch buildings. (See PI. I.) 

One of the best wells of this group is near the house of F. J. 
Kearney, in the SE. i sec. 1, T. 11 S., R. IT W. It is 2 inches in 
diameter and 93 feet deep and ends in coarse gravel, from which the 
water will rise to a level 6 feet above the surface, while at a level 
1 foot above the surface the flow is about 20 gallons per minute. 

The water from the flowing wells is, as a rule, of better quality than 
the shallow ground water. The following table contains an analysis, 
made at the laboratories of the Utah agricultural experiment station, 
of water from one of the flowing wells at the residence of F. J. 
Kearney. This sample, which is believed to be typical of the well 
waters of the Callao Basin, contains only moderate amounts of the 
mineral constituents generally found in ground waters. 

Analysis of water from flowing well of F. J. Kearney, Callao, Utah. 

[Parts per million. Analyst, J. E. Greaves.] 

Total solids ^ 249 

Silica (SiOa) : 16 

Iron ( Fe) Trace 

Calcium (Ca) 38 

Carbonates, stated as calciam carbonate (CaCOs) 228 

Sulphate radicle (SO4) 4 

Chlorides, stated as sodium chloride (NaCl) ]26 

Between Callao and Fish Springs. — The northern part of Juab 
County between Callao and the Fish Springs Eange, into which 
Great Salt Lake Desert extends, lies so low and is so nearly level 
(PL IV) that the ground-water table nearly coincides with the sur- 
face. Desert and swamp are here intimately associated, and the 
same tract is frequently converted from one to the other. Yet the 
prospects for obtaining satisfactory wells are not good. The region 
formed a part of the bed of ancient Lake Bonneville, and the sedi- 
ments beneath it are likely to be too fine to yield water freely and 
too heavily impregnated with salt to furnish water of good quality. 



SNAKE VALLEY. 137 

The unfcavorable conditions found in parts of Sevier Desert are likely 
to be found here also. In general the prospects both as to quantity 
and quality become poorer as the distance from the Deep Creek 
Range increases. 

Man}^ years ago two 2-inch holes were sunk on the flat near the 
west base of the Fish Springs Range, the location being approxi- 
mately sec. 13, T. 11 S., R. 15 W. According to current report, they 
reached a depth of about 300 feet, where drilling was stopped by 
hard rock. The water that was found was salty and remained about 
10 feet below the surface. One of the wells was finished, however, 
and for a number of years its water was used at the mine for live 
stock, laundry, and toilet, and, to some extent, for drinking purposes. 

Another hole was drilled on the flat near the old stage station 
known as Boyd, in or near sec. 21, T. 11 S., R. 15 W. This project 
was also unsuccessful but definite information as to the difficulties 
could not be obtained. 

IRRIGATION. 

The amount of land irrigated in Snake Valley is small as compared 
with the amount of water furnished by streams and springs. This 
is due in part to the fact that some of the largest supplies can not be 
led by gravity upon land adapted for agriculture, but also in part 
to the fact that available supplies are not used to their full capacit}^ 
Much water could be saved if adequate storage facilities could be 
j)rovided. Some of the " natural reservoirs " formed by the waves 
of Lake Bonneville are in positions where they could be brought into 
service at relatively small cost, but it has not been demonstrated that 
they could be rendered sufficiently waterproof to make their use 
feasible. Some water could probably also be saved by practicing 
winter irrigation. 

The water from many of the large springs in the low parts of the 
valley serves no useful function except to produce the growth of a 
small amount of poor grass. The chief obstacle to the use of these 
springs for irrigation lies in the poor drainage and alkali character 
of the soil upon which the water can be led. Whether it could be 
made profitable to pump this water to higher and better land is 
doubtful. 

Practically the only irrigation now accomplished with water from 
wells is at Callao, where a few small tracts are watered from flowing 
wells. In certain parts of the valley, already indicated, considerable 
quantities of water could be recovered from underground sources, but 
pumping would generally be required to make these supplies avail- 
able on good soil. At Callao the quantity recovered by natural flow 
could be increased if a series of wells of large diameter were sunk. 



138 GEOUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

PAROWAN VALLEY. 
PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. 

Pare wan Valley lies at the northeast base of a high plateau from 
which it is separated by a fault scarp several thousand feet high — the 
northward continuation of the Hurricane Ledge. On the face of this 
escarpment and in the canyons that have been cut into the plateau 
since its differential elevation are exposed the edges of several rock 
series that have a great total thickness, display a variety of rich 
colors, and cover a wide range of geologic time. The highest sedi- 
mentary strata — bright-hued Tertiary deposits — are covered in some 
places with somber-colored volcanic rocks. 

Parowan Valley is separated from Rush Lake Valley by a moun- 
tainous region that is several miles wide and consists of sedimentary 
strata and associated dark volcanic rocks. This mountainous region 
is traversed by several faults and the strata dip in different directions. 
Farther southwest the valley is separated from Rush Lake Valley by 
only a low pass which projects from the high plateau to the moun- 
tainous west wall. On the north the valley is shut in by a mountain- 
ous area in which volcanic rocks are abundant. The lowest notch in 
the rim of the basin is formed by Hieroglyph Canyon, which has been 
cut boldly through the west wall. (See PI. II.) 

According to the best available data, the Parowan drainage basin 
comprises between 550 and 600 square miles, nearly two-thirds of 
which belongs to the plateau. Since the Tertiary deformation, which 
apparently brought the basin into existence, the plateau has been 
greatly eroded and the resulting sediments have in large part been 
deposited in the valley. Since only small amounts of rock waste 
were brought into the valley from the west, the alluvial slope on the 
east side comprises most of the valley, and Little Salt Lake, which 
occupies the lowest depression, hugs the west border. Near the 
plateau the slope is steep, but near Little Salt Lake it passes into a 
flat plain with only slight gradient. 

Not all of the material eroded from the plateau has remained in 
the valley, for the drainage of the basin once had an outlet through 
Hieroglyph Canyon, and the outflowing stream carried some rock 
waste with it. The valley lies above the level of the highest stage of 
Lake Bonneville, but there can be little doubt that when the ancient 
lake existed the climate was sufficiently humid to cause a stream to 
flow out through the canyon. Possibly the canyon was formed at this 
time, but more probably it is the work of a stream which was in ex- 
istence before the west wall of the valley was raised and which main- 
tained its course by cutting down its channel as rapidly as the region 
was lifted. That the canyon has long ago fallen into disuse is shown 



PAROWAN VALLEY. 



139 



by the talus and alluviuin that has aceiimiilated in it and also by the 
salt that has accumulated in the lowest depression of the valley. x\n 
indistinct strand, perhaps 20 feet above the pre>sent level of Little 
Salt Lake, shows that this lake has at one time had larger dimensions 
than it has at present. 

RAINI'ALL. 

The records of the United States Weather Bureau, given in the fol- 
lowing table, show that during a period of 18 years, from 1891 to 
1908, inclusive, the annual precipitation at Parowan ranged between 
7.04 and 20.87 inches, and averaged 12.51 inches. Large sagebrush 
is prevalent on the alluvial slopes of this valley. Dry farming has 
not been extensively undertaken, but much interest is at present mani- 
fested in this mode of agriculture and it will probably be given a 
thorough trial in the near future. That the plateau receives more 
precipitation than the valley is shown by the trees and other vegeta- 
tion which it supports. 

Precipitation {in inches) at Parowan. 



Years. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Total. 


1890 


















0.93 

2.10 
.00 

1.11 
.72 
.29 
.47 

1.84 
.25 
.08 
.82 
.04 
.50 

1.00 
.17 

3.80 

3.49 
.33 

1.64 


0.59 
.00 

2 32 
Tr. 
.65 
.58 
.36 

2.48 
.30 
.78 
.56 
.32 
.61 

2.03 
.74 
.12 
.41 

2.16 

1.61 


0.43 
.00 
.20 

1.38 
Tr. 

1.28 
.30 
.73 
.72 
.31 
.34 
.03 

1.86 
Tr. 
Tr. 

1.11 

2.09 
.32 
.50 


0.34 

1.13 

.39 

.72 

1.88 

.90 

.16 

.88 

.82 

1.60 

.07 

96 

1.03 

.53 

.79 

.32 

1.18 

1.20 

1.02 




1891 


1.46 

.47 

.84 

1.65 

1.94 

.16 

1.50 

1.99 

.12 

.51 

.63 

1.18 

1.10 

.43 

.52 

1.40 

1.15 

.86 


2.07 
1.03 
1.03 

.85 
2.82 

.48 
3.45 
1.20 
1.10 

.23 
1.84 

.31 

.77 
1.46 
1.54 

.93 
1.58 
1.19 


2.57 
1.79 
1.23 
2.65 
1.93 

.71 
3.76 
1.66 
2.18 

.18 

.85 
1.83 
1.94 
2.11 
2.29 
3.99 
1.61 

.62 


1.57 

2.03 

1.42 

1.27 

.47 

.83 

.95 

.64 

1.20 

2.64 

1.61 

.21 

1.66 

1.27 

.66 

1.95 

1.23 

.39 


1.14 

.83 

1.34 

.55 

.87 

.93 

.51 

3.35 

1.19 

.61 

.88 

.18 

1.10 

2.07 

1.99 

.62 

2.85 

1.16 


0-20 
.04 
.00 
.57 
.06 
.08 
.02 
.24 
.82 
.13 
.50 
.06 
.49 
.07 
Tr. 
Tr. 
.31 
.16 


1.24 
.66 

2.08 
.78 
.70 

1.69 
.79 

1.19 
.72 
.11 
.04 
.49 
.41 
.98 
.75 

1.71 
.34 

2.16 


0.76 
1.24 
1.65 
1.40 

.23 
3.00 
1.50 
1.46 

.82 

.84 
3.35 

.76 
1.46 
1.23 

.37 
3.10 

.65 

.49 


14.24 


1892 


11.00 


1893 


12.80 


1894 


12.97 


1895 


12.07 


1896 


9.17 


1897 


18.47 


1898 


13.82 


1899 


10.92 


1900 


7.04 


1901 


11.05 


1902 


9.02 


1903 


11.89 


1904 


11.32 


1905 


13.47 


1906 


20.87 


1907 


13.73 


1908 


11.80 


Average 


1.00 


1.33 


1.88 


1.22 


1.23 


.21 


.94 


1.28 


1.03 


.88 


.61 


.84 


12.54 



STREAMS AND ISLOUNTAIN SPRINGS. 

Parowan Creek. — The largest stream in the basin is Parowan 
Creek, which supplies the village of Parowan Avith water for irriga- 
tion. Like other streams of its type, its flow is very irregular, gen- 
erally being largest in May and June when the bulk of the snow in 
the mountains melts. Much of the flood water and winter discharge 
are lost. In October, 1908, the flow was estimated to be 15 second- 
feet. The total area irrigated with this supply is reported to be 
about 2,000 acres. 

Red and Little creehs. — Red Creek and Little Creek furnish the 
irrigation supply for the Paragonah settlement. The water in Red 
Canyon comes largely from springs and its volume varies less than 



140 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

that of streams which depend chiefly on the melting of snow. In 
October, 1908, the discharge from Ked Canyon was about one-half as 
great as from Parowan Canyon. The Ked Canyon water is reported 
to irrigate about 800 to 1,000 acres, and the water from Little Creek, 
a short distance north, about 300 acres. 

Streams and springs north of Little Greek. — The only streams of 
any consequence north of Little Creek are Willow Creek and Cotton- 
wood Creek, which together are said to furnish enough water to irri- 
gate about 100 acres. Buckskin Valley, high up in the mountains, 
has three good springs which supply a large number of cattle. There 
is also a spring in Fremont Pass and several others near the north 
end of the basin. 

Streams and springs south of Parowan Creeh. — The largest supply 
south of Parowan Creek comes from Summit Creek and is used for 
irrigation at the village of Summit. There is also a small supply at 
the Winn Ranch, a short distance west of Summit, and there are 
numerous springs along the margin of the mountain between Paro- 
wan and Summit, some of which are used to irrigate small tracts. 

VALLEY SPRINGS. 

Many springs occur in the valley along a line extending southeast- 
ward from Buckhorn Spring, where the steep part of the alluvial 
slope gives way to the nearly level plain that occupies the lowest part 
of the valley. Many of the springs consist of small pools, in which 
respect they resemble somewhat the Fish Springs and the springs in 
Snake Valley. They furnish good supplies for live stock and culi- 
nary purposes but do not yield enough to be of much value for irri- 
gation. Many small springs, some of which yield salty water, occur 
on both sides of Little Salt Lake. 

FLOWING AVELLS. 

Flowing wells have been obtained throughout an area that is about 
16 miles long and extends from a point 1 mile northeast of Buckhorn 
Spring to a point several miles west of Parowan, .as is shown in 
Plate 11. Most of the best flows are found along the spring line or 
a short distance east of it, but flows have also been obtained at vari- 
ous points on the flat between the spring line and the salt lake. Sev- 
eral score of flowing wells are at present in use and new wells are 
being sunk. 

The flowing water is derived from deposits of sand and gravel 
interbedded with layers of clay, and the artesian conditions do not 
depend on the structure of the rocks. It is not obtained from a 
single bed nor from several definitely recognized beds, but from all 
porous materials below a certain level. In many wells the first flow 



PAKOWAN VALLEY. 



141 



is struck at a depth of about TO feet, but as the drill penetrates deeper 
it is likely to discover stronger flows from beds of gravel that are 
more freely porous and that contain water under slightly better head. 
The deepest flowing well reported is about 400 feet deep, and many 
of the largest yields are derived from Avells between 200 and 300 feet 
deep, but most of the wells are less than 200 feet deep. The water 
from these wells has not been analyzed but is apparently of good 
quality. 

The wells thus far drilled are all small, most of them being 2 
inches, and a few 3 inches, in diameter. They are finished with 
heavj^ iron casing, and water is usually admitted into them at only 
one level. Many of the wells flow less than 10 gallons per minute, 
but a few of the 3-inch wells jdeld from 25 to nearly 100 gallons per 
minute. In none of the wells is the water under much pressure. 

The largest flowing well supplies have been developed on the farm 
of J. L. Lowder (sees. 25, 26, and 35, T. 33 S., R. 9 W.), where 14 
wells furnish water for irrigating about 100 acres; on the farm of 
Frank Culver (NE. J sec. 9, T. 34 S., R. 9 W.), where about a dozen 
wells together yield more than one-half second- foot ; and on the farm 
of James C. Robison, 2 miles south of Buckhorn Spring, where a 
number of flowing wells furnish water for irrigation. On several 
other farms irrigation supplies are obtained from flowing wells. 

The wells of Frank Culver, all of which are Avithin several rods of 
each other, discharge into a small reservoir, from which the water is 
led to irrigated fields. The following table gives the principal facts 
in regard to this group of wells. 

Wells of Frank Culver, Parotvan Valley, Utah. 



No. 


Diame- 
ter. 


Depth. 


Temper- 
ture of 
water. 


Natural 
flow. 


1 
2 
3 

4 
5 
G 
7 
8 
9 

10 
11 
12 

Total. . 


Inches. 

2 
2 
2 
3 
2 
2 

3 

3 
3 


Feet. 


° F. 
49.8 
49.8 
50.3 
32.3 
52.4 
50.0 
50.0 
51.5 
51.0 
51.0 
53. 
53.3 


Gallons 
per min- 
ute. 
11 
5 
5 
4 
37 
13 
11 
5 
40 
23 
50 
43 






180(?) 

233 

50 

160(?) 


140 

50 

202 

242 


247 











The inhabitants of this valley have only recently come to realize 
that supplies of substantial value can be developed by drilling Avells, 
and further development is being prosecuted Avith enthusiasm. The 
conditions warrant sinking test wells to greater depths than have 



142 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

[ 

thus far been reached. The faulted structure of the basin makes it 
probable that the unconsolidated sediments are very thick, and the 
deeply buried sediments are likely to contain beds of gravel with 
water under good head. Drilling should not, however, be carried into 
bed rock. The California method of drilling wells, described on 
pages 60-64, could be introduced to good advantage in this valley. 

As the supply of underground water is a definitely limited quan- 
tity, none of it should be wasted. Unless it is found practicable to 
build reservoirs of sufficient size to store the water which the flowing 
wells would yield during the winter, these wells should be closed at 
the end of the irrigation season. If the number of wells is greatly 
increased they will interfere with each other. Eventually it may be 
found profitable to install pumping plants rather than to depend 
entirely on artesian pressure, because more water could be recovered 
by pumping, and it could be applied to more productive soil. On the 
higher levels of the alluvial slopes there are no prospects of securing 
flows, and the success thus far attained should not lead to costly 
drilling experiments on high ground or in rock formations. 

WATER BENEATH THE BENCH LANDS. 

A number of nonflowing wells have been sunk on the lower part of 
the alluvial slope directly west of Parowan and in other localities. 
These wells yield good water which remains at a depth proportionate 
to the elevation of the surface above the flowing area. Good pump 
wells can generally be obtained by sinking to moderate depths on the 
lower and middle parts of the alluvial slopes. 

CULINARY SUPPLIES. 

In the three principal settlements of this valley the supplies for 
drinking and culinary use are taken from the streams which furnish 
the irrigation supplies or from ditches leading from these streams. 
Water from springs in the canyons or on the mountain sides, if led 
to the settlements through pipe lines, could be protected from pollu- 
tion, and would therefore be safer for drinking and culinary purposes 
than the stream water. 

RUSH LAKE VALLEY. 

PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. 

A great fault with a throw of several thousand feet extends north- 
eastward through Iron County, passing Kanarraville, Cedar City, 
Summit, Parowan, and Paragonah. East of the fault the rock 
formations have been thrust relatively upward, producing a high 
plateau with a steep escarpment known as the Hurricane Ledge. 
Since the displacement the edge of the plateau has been carved by 



RUSH LAKE VALLEY. 143 

stream erosion into a mountainous area. This escarpment forms the 
east border of Rush Lake Valley as far north as the vicinity of 
Enoch, where it swings eastward and forms th« border of Parowan 
Valley, while a low range that trends more nearly northward forms 
the divide between Eush Lake and Parowan valleys. 

West of the southern part of Rush Lake Valley are the Iron Moun- 
tains, but these mountains disappear toward the north, leaving only 
a low divide between the northern part of this valley and the Esca- 
lante Desert. There are two other low points in the rim of Rush 
Lake Valley. One is at the Iron Springs, where there is an outlet 
for the drainage of a part of the valley; the other is in the vicinity 
of Kanarraville, where an inconspicuous divide is all that separates 
Rush Lake Valley from the drainage basin of Colorado River. (See 
PL IL) 

The rocks exposed in this region have a great total thickness and 
include Carboniferous, Jurassic, Triassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary 
strata. The youngest formations are exposed in the northern part 
of the plateau area of this county and older beds come to light farther 
south. The Jurassic, Triassic, and Tertiary formations have con- 
spicuous colors, but the intervening Cretaceous beds have a somber 
gray aspect. Volcanic rocks of Tertiary age are found on the plateau, 
in the Iron Mountains, in the range between Rush Lake and Paro- 
wan valleys, and in the area southwest of Cedar City. 

Rush Lake Valley exhibits the characteristic features of a closed 
basin in an arid region. Its peripheral parts consist of broad, open, 
alluvial slopes, and its central part consists of a nearly level plain, 
the lowest depressions of which are occupied by lakes, swamps, and 
dr}^ alkali flats. The alluvial slopes and central plain are underlain 
by sediments which were washed out from the mountains and which 
consist of alternating beds of gravel, sand, and clay. 

A low divide, extending from the mouth of Coal Creek Canyon 
to Iron Springs, separates the valley into tAvo basins. The south 
basin drains into a small salt lake known as Shirts Lake. (See PL 
II and fig. 13.) The north basin is drained in part into Rush Lake, 
but the water from Coal Creek may come to rest in depressions 
farther south or may find its way into Escalante Desert through the 
valley at Iron Springs. 

RAINFALL. 

The rainfall observations at Cedar City cover only a few years, but 
they indicate that the precipitation at this point does not differ 
greatly from that at Parowan, where the record extends over a much 
longer period. That the climatic conditions in Rush Lake Valley are 
similar to those in Parowan Valley is also indicated by the general 
aspect of the vegetation. Dry farming has been attempted on a small 
scale and some success has been attained. 



144 



GEOUND WATERS IN WESTEBN UTAH. 
Precipitation (in inches) at Cedar City. 



Years. 


Jan. 


Feb^ 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Total. 


1899 














.47 
.46 


1.00 
.61 


Tr. 
1.18 


1.03 
.39 


.39 
.38 
3.36 
2.07 
.20 
.32 


1.18 




1900 


.81 


.29 


.22 


3.65 


.34 


.11 




1905 


.54 
1.31 
.93 

.67 




1906 


.68 
.93 
.55 


1.28 
1.31 
1.44 


3.78 
1.58 

.77 


1.77 
.88 
.38 


.72 
2.63 
1.16 








1.56 

.53 

2.30 


.10 
3.24 
2.31 




1907 


.34 
.15 


1.16 
2.45 


2.43 
1.23 


16.16 


1908.. 


13.73 







STREAMS. 

Coal Creek, the largest stream that discharges into Eush Lake 
Valley, collects its waters in the plateau area and debouches from its 
canyon at Cedar City. Here it furnishes enough water to irrigate 
about 3,000 acres, of which 1,700 acres come under the primary water 
right. Owing to lack of storage facilities, a large part of the winter 
flow and of the flood waters resulting from heavy storms, runs to 
waste. 

Shirts Creek rises on the plateau in an area south of Coal Creek 
drainage basin, and its water is used by the small settlement at 
Hamiltons Fort, where between 200 and 300 acres are under cultiva- 
tion. The flow of this stream fluctuates widely, being generally 
greatest in the spring when the snow melts. An attempt was made 
to store the flood waters, such as are at present lost, by utilizing as 
a reservoir the basin formed by the volcanic rocks that occur some 
distance west of the mountain border, but these rocks are so badly 
fissured that they allowed the water to escape. 

Kanarra Creek provides the irrigation supply for the settlement 
at Kanarraville. Like Shirts Creek it rises on the plateau, receives 
much of its water directly from the melting of the snow, and hence 
fluctuates greatly in size. Some water has been stored in a reservoir 
south of the village. The total area brought under irrigation is re- 
ported to be somewhat less than 300 acres. 

Several very small streams are found in the Iron Mountains, among 
which are Queatchupah Creek, whose supply is used to irrigate about 
50 acres at McConnell's ranch (fig. 13), and the streamlet in Leach 
Canyon, which is utilized at the Duncan ranch. 

SPRINGS. 

Ward's ranch is in the NE. J sec. 12, T. 34 S., R. 11 W., about 
5 miles north of Enoch, and near the base of a cliff of volcanic rock 
that belongs to the mountainous area between Rush Lake and Paro- 
wan valleys. At this ranch there is a group of springs which yield 
approximately one second-foot of water. The water issues on low 
ground, where it gives rise to a swampy tract, but, as far as possible, 



RUSH LAKE VALLEY. 145 

it is used for irrigating grass land. The origin of these large springs 
seems to be associated with the volcanic rock. 

Volcanic rock similar to that found at Ward's ranch forms a low 
ridge east of Enoch and separates the relatively high bench land in 
the vicinity of Summit from the lower level of Kush Lake Valley. 
Near the west base of this ridge, along a line extending northward 
from Enoch for more than a mile, there are numerous springs, some 
of which are large. Considerable water also issues from springs in 
a small canyon cut through the ridge. The water is derived, at least 
in part, from saturated sediments east of the ridge, the fissures in the 
volcanic rock probably having a function in conducting it. The water 
is of good quality and is used for irrigation, although some of it 
issues at too low a level to be applied advantageously. 

A number of small springs are found on the low ground that sur- 
rounds Shirts Lake. Among them are Eight-mile Spring, situated 
a short distance northwest of the lake on the NW. I sec. 16, T. 36 S., 
R. 12 W., and Mud Springs, situated a short distance south of the lake 
on about the NW. i sec. 9, T. 37 S., R. 12 W. (fig. 13). There are 
also seepage springs in the valley west of Kanarraville. 

Iron Springs are located in the valley that leads from Rush Lake 
Valley, through the northern part of the Iron Mountains, into Esca- 
lante Desert. The water issues at different points along a stream 
channel which passes through this valley. In part the springs seem 
to result from the overflow of the ground water that saturates the 
sediments of Rush Lake Valley, much as some of the Enoch Springs 
result from the overflow of the ground water in Parowan Valley. 
Accordingly their yield varies with the season, being greatest in the 
spring, when some of the surface w^aters of Rush Lake Valley are dis- 
charged through this outlet, and least in the fall and the winter, when 
the water supply is meager. At the time the area was visited, Octo- 
ber, 1908, nearly a second-foot of water issued from the springs and 
flowed through the stream channel. This water is used to only a 
small extent for irrigation but forms a valuable supply for live stock. 
The Church ranch, near the springs, is important as the halfway 
house between Cedar City and the railway station at Lund. 

FLOWING WELLS. 

Wehsfer^s well. — The well of Francis Webster is situated on low 
ground a few miles southwest of Enoch, in the NE. J SE. J sec. 14, 
T. 35 S., R. 11 W. (PI. II). It is 2 inches in diameter and 153 feet 
deep. The water is rather hard, but apparently othenvise of good 
quality and has a temperature of about 54° F. When the well was 
completed the water remained at a depth of 7 feet, and for seven yeai*s 
it had to be pumped in order to bring it to the surface, but in July, 
9030S°— wsp 277—11 10 



146 



GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 



1907, it began to overflow, and from that time until October, 1908, 
when the investigation was made, it overflowed continuously. At 
the latter date the natural yield was about 3^ gallons per minute. 
This interesting rise in the head of the water is probably to be corre- 
lated with increase in rainfall. The records for Parowan show that 

in 1900, the year in 
which the well was 
drilled, the precipi- 
tation was lighter 
than in any other 
year within the pe- 
riod of 18 years 
during which rec- 
ords have been kept 
at that station, and 
that in each year 
from 1899 to 1904, 
inclusive, the pre- 
cipitation was be- 
low the average. 
These records show 
further that in 1906 
the precipitation 
was heavier than 
in any other year 
within the 18-year 
period, and that in 
1907 it was again 
above the average. 
The records at Ce- 
dar City also show 
unusually light pre- 
cipitation in 1900 
and unusually 
heavy precipitation 
in 1907. 

M gC onnelV s 
well. — A small flow 
is reported from a 
well that belongs 
to Mr. McConnell and is situated in Cedar Bottoms several miles 
west of Webster's well. 

Thorley^s wells. — About half a mile north of the Eightmile Springs, 
near the northwest corner of sec. 16, T. 36 S., R. 12 W. (fig. 13), 
are four flowing wells which belong to A. Thorley. They are small 




Figure 13. 



Contour i nterval 50 feet 

-Map of a part of the south basin of Rush Lake 
Valley. 



RUSH LAKE VALLEY. 147 

in diameter and are said to be only 80 or 90 feet deep. The water 
is apparently good but the natural flow is very slight. 

Williams^s wells. — Five flowing wells have been drilled by George 
Williams in the vicinity of Mud Springs, south-southeast of Shirts 
Lake. (See fig. 13.) The first was drilled in about 1892 and is two 
inches in diameter and 85 feet deep. In this well the first water 
was struck 8 feet below the surface, and the casing extends only to 
this depth. According to report, the flow was about 20 gallons per 
minute when the well was completed, but it is now much less, prob- 
ably owing to deterioration of the well. 

The other four wells, which are located nearly a mile farther west, 
are 2 inches in diameter and about 90 feet deep. One is cased to a 
depth of 80 feet, the others only to 8 feet, where the first water was 
struck. Each of these wells is said to have flowed about 5 gallons a 
minute when they were completed, but they have since been neg- 
lected and their yield has diminished. They are situated on some- 
what lower ground than the Thorley wells, which fact may account 
for their larger original flow. The water is good to the taste and 
was found to have a temperature of 54.5° F. 

In this locality Mr. Williams has drilled to the depth of 240 feet, 
the drill apparently passing through unconsolidated sediments only. 
He states that in drilling to this depth five or six beds were struck 
that gave rise to flows, some of them stronger than the 90-foot flow, 
and that all the water is of good quality. 

Wells at Kanarraville. — On Ioav ground less than 1 mile west of 
Kanarraville there is a well, belonging to William Ford, which is 
reported to be considerably less than 100 feet deep. In the past this 
well yielded a small amount of water by natural flow but at the time 
it was visited no water flowed from it. 

In the village of Kanarraville, at a somewhat higher altitude than 
Ford's well, a 2-inch hole Avas drilled to a depth of 240 feet. Mr. 
Williams, the driller, reports that several water-bearing strata were 
found and that water from the depth of 190 feet rose within 1 foot 
of the surface. The drill was finally lost and the well was abandoned. 

NONFLOWING WELLS. 

In northern part of valley. — At AYard's ranch (NE. I sec. 12, T. 
34 S., R. 11 W.) a well 2 inches in diameter was drilled to a depth 
of 250 feet, the last 13 feet of which are said to be in volcanic rock. 
The water comes from the bottom and rises within 8 feet of the top 
of the well, or nearly to the level of the flat area west of the well. 
The water is of good quality and is used for drinking and other pur- 
poses. Less than a mile north of this ranch another 250-foot well 
is reported, the water here rising within 4 feet of the surface. Other 



148 GUOUND WATEES IN WESTERN UTAH. 

wells have been sunk in the bottoms farther west, in all of which the 
water stands within a few feet of the surface. 

Several shallow wells have been dug in the vicinity of Enoch. The 
well of Iliram Jones, which is located on the narrow bench between 
the ridge and the bottom lands, is 20 feet deep and is filled with water 
within 6 or 8 feet of the top ; the well of J. H. Armstrong, situated on 
lower ground near the foot of tile bench, is only 12 feet deep ; the well 
of William Grimshaw, southwest of Enoch, on the W. ^ of SW. J 
sec. 12, T. 33 S., E. 11 W., is 17 feet deep and contains 3 feet of water; 
the well of John Webster, about 1 mile south of Enoch, is 30 feet 
deep; the well of David Bullock, on the W. J sec. 24, T. 35 S., E. 11 
W., was 48 feet deep and contained 10 feet of water until recently 
when the sides caved in and the well fell into disuse. Wells of the 
game type, many of them abandoned or in bad repair, are found at 
liliiferent points on Cedar Bottoms. Most of the wells that have 
been mentioned yield good water, but in some of the wells on the bot- 
toms the water is salty. 

In southern part of valley. — At Hamiltons Fort a depth of 100 feet 
has been reached without striking ground water, but about 1^ miles 
west of this settlement there are pump wells 30 to 40 feet deep and 
shallow wells are also found between Hamiltons Fort and Kanarra- 
ville. There is a dug well only 12 feet deep at Bower's (NW. J sec. 3, 
T. 36 S., E. 12 W.), where the altitude is about the same as at Thor- 
ley's flowing wells, and there was formerly a good well with the same 
depth at the Church ranch (N. J sec. 20, T. 35 S., E. 12 W.). 

IRRIGATION WITH GROUND WATER. 

Both the north basin and the south basin of the valley have possi- 
bilities of further development of the water in the unconsolidated 
deposits. 

The recent success in prospecting for flows in Parowan Yalley has 
revived interest in similar prospecting in Eush Lake Yalley, and it is 
likely that before this paper appears considerable drilling will have 
been done. Although some irrigation could be accomplished with 
flowing well water, there is no indication that any extensive tracts 
could be reclaimed in this manner, because in the areas where flowing 
wells can be expected the soil is for the most part swampy and alka- 
line. 

If wells of large diameter, several hundred feet deep, were widely 
scattered over those parts of the valley which have shallow ground 
water, but which are not swampy or burdened with alkali, and if 
pumps were applied to these wells, enough water could be recovered 
to bring hundreds of acres under irrigation. The construction of 
wells of this type is discussed on pages 59-64. If the water power 



ESCALANTE DESERT. 149 

of the streams were developed, the pumping could be done at com- 
paratively small cost, but even by the use of gasoline, producer-gas, 
or a proper type of steam engines pumping for irrigation can prob- 
ably, with efficient management, be made profitable. Before in- 
stalling pumping plants the precautions given on pages 49-53 should 
be observed. 

CULINARY SUPPLIES. 

At Cedar City, Hamiltons Fort, and Kanarraville the water from 
the mountain streams which furnish the irrigation supplies has up 
to the present time been used for drinking and culinary purposes. 
At Cedar City the water has been brought into the city through 
wooden mains; in the other two settlements it is drawn from the 
open ditches. At Cedar City steps have recently been taken to in- 
stall a pipe line leading from a mountain spring, and at Kanarraville 
a similar project is under consideration. At Enoch the culinary sup- 
ply is derived from springs and wells. The sanitary aspects of water 
supplies are discussed on pages 53-55. 

ESCALANTE DESERT. 
PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY. 

Escalante Desert is an extensive plain surrounded by mountains, 
most of which are only moderately high. (PL II.) The rocks that 
constitute the mountains differ widely in character, age, and struc- 
ture, but these differences have so little relation to the occurrence of 
ground water in the desert that they need not be discussed here. To 
a large extent the sedimentary formations are covered with volcanic 
rocks of Tertiary age. 

When Lake Bonneville stood near its highest level Escalante Desert 
was occupied by a large but shallow bay of that lake (fig. 2), as is 
proved by the ancient shore features, which are distinct although not 
as impressive as in some localities. The monotonously flat surface 
of this desert, like that of Sevier Desert and Great Salt Lake Desert, 
is typical of ancient lake topography. 

The desert is underlain by unconsolidated sediments derived from 
the rock waste of the surrounding mountains. In part these sedi- 
ments were deposited by the streams; in part they were carried into 
the ancient lake and were allowed to settle quietly at the bottom of 
this lake. The lake-formed deposits in the interior of the desert 
probably consist largely of fine-grained sediments that will not fur- 
nish much water, but coarse materials that will yield their water 
freely are to be expected near the mouths of the principal canyons. 
The well sections given in succeeding paragraphs throw some light 
on the character of the unconsolidated beds. 



150 



GROUND WATEES IN WESTERN UTAH. 



RAINFALL. 

In the following table are given the United States Weather Bureau 
records of precipitation in this region. At Modena the lightest 
annual precipitation since 1901, inclusive, was 5.00 inches, and the 
heaviest 16.62 inches, while the average for eight years is 11.50 inches. 
By reference to figure 4 it will be seen that the seasonal distribution 
of the rainfall is here somewhat different from that at the stations in 
Juab and Millard counties, the spring rainfall being less and the late 
summer rainfall being greater. Recently dry farming has been 
undertaken on a large scale near the mouth of Pinto Creek. 

Precipitation {in inches) in Escalante Desert. 
Modena. 



Years. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May. 


June. 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Total. 


1901 

1902 


0.43 
.33 
.12 
.20 
.86 
.67 
1.63 
1.62 


3.63 
.32 
.85 

1.01 

1.79 
.47 
.73 

1.47 


0.06 
.54 
.74 
.98 
2.09 
3.22 
2.23 
1.10 


0.68 
.13 
.61 
.02 
1.05 
2.91 
.51 
.76 


0.65 

.19 

.55 

1.55 

.72 

1.31 

1.71 

1.50 


0.32 
.02 
.13 
.11 

Tr. 
.00 
.50 
.37 


1.33 

Tr. 

.14 

.69 

.81 

2.30 

2.46 

2.76 


1.17 
1.58 

.92 
1.52 
1.71 
3.40 

.77 
2.76 


0.06 

.76 

1.48 

2.02 

1.26 

.91 

.09 

1.64 


0.78 
.04 

1.39 
.50 

1.00 
.34 

1.71 

1.76 


0.01 
.89 
.00 
.00 
.90 

1.40 
.12 
.03 


0.12 
.29 
.00 
.23 
.20 

2.13 
.34 
.85 


9.24 
5.09 


1903 


6.93 


1904 


9.83 


1905 


12.39 


1906 


19.06 


1907 


12.80 


1908 


16.62 






Average 


.73 


1.28 


1.37 


.83 


1.02 


.18 


1.31 


1.73 


1.03 


.94 


.42 


.52 


11.50 



Near Enterprise. 



1907. 
1908. 



3.27 
2.53 



1.66 
2.56 



3.00 
1.09 



0.96 
1.56 



1.52 
1.37 



0.64 



0.70 



2.43 



1.22 



2.45 



0.10 
.73 



16.97 



Pinto. 



1897. 



1900. 
1901. 
1902. 
1903. 
1904. 
1905. 
1906. 
1907. 
1908- 



.64 
2.72 
2.63 
1.20 



3.05 

.68 

.35 

.27 

2.74 

.95 

1.06 

1.91 

1.88 

1.52 

2.00 

2.40 



4.11 
1.33 
2.17 
.34 
.23 
2.66 
1.57 
1.72 
2.28 
6.45 
2.92 
1.59 



0.78 
.39 
.40 

2.31 
.85 
.25 

1.30 
.44 

1.48 

2.15 



2.10 



0.52 

2.30 

.58 

.65 

.85 

.19 

.80 

1.90 

2.09 

.93 

1.84 

.95 



0.05 
.25 
.77 
.25 
.45 

Tr. 
.17 



.00 
.17 



.09 



0.90 

.07 

.05 

.13 

.80 

.01 

Tr. 

3.25 

1.41 

1.64 

2.14 

2.15 



5.07 
1.71 
1.74 
1.97 
1.83 
2.82 



3.45 



2.17 
.00 
.00 

1.32 
.00 
.20 

1.37 
.99 

4.82 

1.82 



2.53 



3.76 

.00 

1.75 

.77 

1.43 

.93 

1.75 

.91 

.77 

.10 

3.09 

2.24 



0.40 
.11 
.67 

3.16 
.39 

3.09 
.00 
.00 

1.67 

2.43 



,25 



1.16 
.11 
.49 
.05 
.57 
.70 
.21 
.17 
.08 

2.85 



.90 



7.12 
8.54 
9.71 
15.10 
11.30 
10.40 



18.95 
25.60 



19.85 



Lund. 



1901. 
1902. 
1903. 



0.15 
.24 
.25 



1.73 
.05 
1.20 



Tr. 
.53 
1.20 



Tr. 
0.94 



Tr. 
0.89 



Tr. 



0.28 
2." 76' 



0.50 



0.00 



0.05 



Tr 



.36 



SOIL. 



The native vegetation shows that there are important differences 
in the character of the soil in different parts of the desert. On the 
bench lands along the borders sagebrush is founds but on much of the 



ESCALANTE DESERT. 



151 



low flat, where the ground water is near the surface and the soil con- 
tains alkali, greasewood and salt brush predominate. 

In order to investigate the feasibility of irrigating with ground 
water in a low area where the water rises nearly or quite to the sur- 
face, samples of soil were obtained from two localities in this area, 
and these samples were analyzed by the United States Bureau of 
Soils. One set of samples was taken on the flat a short distance south 
of the station house at Lund, where water was struck at the depth of 
6 feet; the other set was taken near Webster's flowing well, a short 
distance west of the Table Buttes, where water was struck at the 
depth of 4 feet. In both localities greasewood and salt brush were 
present, and in both the analyses show a soil that is high in alkali. 

Analyses of soil at Lund, Utah. 



Depth 

within 

which soil 

was taken. 


Soluble 

solids 

(alkalies). 

Per cent 

of total 

material. 


Predominating salts in order 
named. 


■ Feet. 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
G 


2.1 
2.1 
2.5 
2.1 
2.2 
2.7 


Sulphates and chlorides. 

Do. 

Do. 
Chlorides and sulphates. 
Sulphates and chlorides, 

Do. 



Analyses of soil near Webster's flowing well, Escalante Desert, Utah. 



Depth 

within 

which sou 

was taken. 


Soluble 
solids 

(alkalies). 
Percent 
of total 

material. 


Predominating salts, in order 
named. 


Feet. 
1 
2 
3 
4 


1.8 

2.8 

.8 

.4 


Sulphates and clilorides. 

Do. 
Chlorides and bicarbonates. 
Bicarbonates and sulphates. 



STREAMS. 



Because of the general aridity and the low altitude of most of tlie 
surrounding mountains, few streams reach Escalant-e Desert. Aside 
from Iron Springs Creek, the only permanent streams in the basin 
rise in the relatively high mountains to the south. (See PL II.) 

The most westerly of these streams is Shoal Creek, which emerges 
at Enterprise, in Washington County, and furnishes considerable 



152 GKOUND WATERS IN WESTEHN UTAH. 

water for irrigation in that vicinity. Twelve miles up this stream 
there is a partly completed reservoir in which the flood waters will 
be stored, thus adding greatly to the available supply. Formerly 
the water was used at Hebron, which is farther upstream than Enter- 
prise. Spring Creek is a much smaller stream that rises east of Shoal 
Creek, but also emerges from the mountains in the vicinity of Enter- 
prise. 

Meadow Creek is next east of Spring Creek. Formerly it fur- 
nished irrigation water for a small settlement at Hamblin, which is 
located in a meadow in the mountains, but some years ago heavy 
spring floods cut a deep gully through this meadow and thus robbed 
it of most of its water supply. At present the water of the creek is 
used at the Holtz ranch, which is located at the mouth of the canyon. 

Farthest east are Pinto and Little Pinto creeks, which unite and 
flow out upon the desert at what is called the " Castle," or the " Mouth 
of Pinto." Much of the water of Pinto Creek is used at a settlement 
called Pinto, which, like Hebron and Hamblin, is situated in the 
mountains, but important water rights have also been established 
below the Castle. 

SPRINGS. 

The low mountains west of the railroad contain many small springs 
which are valuable chiefly as supplies for live stock on the range. 
Only a few of the best known of these springs are shown in Plate II. 
Many of them are seeps from the disintegrated igneous rock. 

Sulphur Spring is about IJ miles west-northwest of Lund and at 
about the same level. It is situated at the base of a low alluvial slope 
bordering the western mountains. The small amount of water that it 
yields is used only as a supply for live stock. 

The Desert Springs are situated northwest of Modena and other 
small springs occur farther up the canyon in which they are found. 
The locomotive and culinary supplies at Modena come from a number 
of large dug wells about 4J miles northwest of the village, the water 
being conducted to the village, by gravity, through a 6-inch pipe line. 
At Gold Springs and Stateline, two small mining camps northwest 
of Modena, the water supplies are derived chiefly from springs. 

Iron Springs, which have been described in the section on Rush 
Lake Valley (p. 145), but whose water drains into Escalante Desert, 
are the largest springs in the Iron Mountains. Other springs in these 
mountains and within this drainage basin are Antelope Springs, in 
sec. 4, T. 35 S., R. 14 W., and Sand Springs, between this point and 
the Mouth of Pinto. Numerous spring's are found in the moun- 
tainous area south of the desert. 



ESCALANTE DESERT. 153 

FLOWING AVELLS. 

Wehster^s well. — A floAving well belonging to John Webster is 
located in the interior of Escalante Desert, along the road leading 
from the Mouth of Pinto to Lund, a short distance west of Table 
Buttes, which form a Avell-known landmark in this region. (PL 11.) 
The surrounding country lies low, is flat excej)t for minor irregulari- 
ties that have been developed by Avind erosion, and in wet seasons is 
partly submerged by accumulating storm Avaters. The well is 1} 
inches in diameter, is reported to be 160 feet deep, and yields several 
gallons of water per minute by natural flow. The water is good to 
the taste; it Avas found to contain only 29 parts per million of 
chlorine but it gaA^e a slight reaction for normal carbonates. 

Wells at Sulphur Springs and Lund. — A small flowing well in the 
vicinity of the Sulphur Springs is said to be 280 feet deep but little 
reliable data in regard to it could be procured. In his report on the 
water resources of Beaver County, Lee states that in the 585-foot 
railroad well at Lund flowing water was struck at 5 horizons,^ but 
from the best information available it appears that these flows took 
place in a pit and that the water never rose higher than within one 
or two feet of the natural surface. . 

NONFLOAVING AVELLS. 

Railroad wells at Lund. — The old railroad well at Lund is said to 
be 4 inches in diameter and several hundred feet deep, but reliable 
information in regard to it is lacking. Originally the water rose 
within 1^ feet of the surface, but now it remains at a depth of about 
8 feet. 

The new well, completed in 1903, was carried to a depth of 585 feet. 
The casing is 12 inches in diameter at the top, but is reduced to 10, 8, 
and finally 6 inches. As in the old well, the water at first rose 
Avithin 1^ or 2 feet of the surface, but has since retreated to a leA^el 
about 8 feet below the surface. Mr. Lee states that when this well is 
pumped it yields 100 gallons per minute Avith a temporary depression 
of the water surface of less than 20 feet. The following section of 
the new well, taken from Mr. Lee's report, shows that the sediments 
underlying Lund are predominantly fine-grained, but that a fcAV beds 
of graA^el and coarse Avater-bearing sand exist. 

1 Lee, W. T., Water resources of Beaver A'alley, Utah : Water-Supply Paper U. S. Geol. 
Survey No. 217, 1908, p. 31. 



154 



GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 
Section of the t^ailroad loell at Lund, Utah, 



Thick- 
ness. 



Depth. 



Clay 

Gravel (small flow) 

Coarse gravel 

Hardpan and clay 

Quicksand 

Blue clay 

Sand 

Red clay 

Blue clay 

Red rock 

Blue clay 

Quicksand 

Green shale rock 

Clay and sand 

Sand (small flow) 

Blue clay 

Clay and sand 

Sand (large flow) 

Clay 

Sand 

Red clay 

Very fine sand 

Red clay 

Dark clay 

Blue clay 

Veiy fine sand 

Blue clay 

Fine sand (small flow) . . . 

Brown clay 

Sand 

Brown clay 

Coarse sand 

Coarse gravel (large flow) . 
Blue clay 



Feet. 



2 

4 

6 

4 
49 

4 
80 

4 

12 

159 

6 
70 
20 
10 
10 

3 
11 

8 
13 

3 



Feet. 



12 
16 
65 
69 
149 
153 
165 
324 
330 
400 
420 
430 
440 
443 
454 
462 
475 
478 



504 
508 
522 
525 
527 
530 
549 
550 
573 
583 
585 



The water is only moderately mineralized, as is shown by the fol- 
lowing analysis made for the railroad company in January, 1905 : 

Analysis of water from the new railroad well at Lund, Utah. 

[Parts per million.^ Analyst, Herman Hai*ms.] 

Total solids 486 

Silica (SiOa) 64 

Oxides of iron and aluminum (FeoOg+AloOs) 4 

Calcium carbonate (CaCOa) 47 

Calcium sulphate (CaSO^) 83 

Magnesium carbonate (MgCOs) 63 

Sodium chloride (NaCl) 116 

Magnesium sulphate (MgSOi), sodium sulphate (NaaSO*), 
volatile and organic matter, and loss 159 

Railroad well at Beryl. — In the railroad well at Beryl, which is 13 
inches in diameter and 208 feet deep, water was found at depths of 
23 feet, 180 feet, and 203 feet. The well as finished draws from the 
203-foot bed, from which the water rises within 19 feet of the surface. 
During a pumping test of 24 hours the well is said to have yielded 183 
gallons per minute. A 4-foot hole sunk to the depth of 23 feet 
yielded 20 gallons per minute. 

1 Reported by the chemist in grains per gallon. 



ESCALANTE DESERT. 
Section of the railroad well at Beryl, Utah} 



155 




Depth, 



Feet. 



Soil 

Clay and gravel 

Gravel (water-bearing). 

Gravel and clay 

Clay 

Clay and gravel 

Gravel (water-bearing). 

Clay 

Sand (water-bearing) . . 
Clay 



8 


8 


8 


IG 


7 


23 


15 


38 


80 


118 


57 


175 


5 


180 


20 


200 


3 


203 


5 


208 



Lee, W. T., Water-Supply Taper U. S. Geol. Survey No. 217, 1908, p. 31. 

The water from this well, like that from the Lund well, is used in 
the boilers of the locomotives. As shown in the following analyses, 
it contains only moderate amounts of the mineral substances com- 
monly found in ground waters. 

Analyses of ivater from the railroad ivell at Beryl, Utah. 

[Parts per million.^ Analyst, Herman Harms.] 



Sample 

from 
depth of 
25 feet 2 



Sample 

from 
bottom.3 



Total solids 

Silica (Si O2) 

Oxides of iron and aluminum (re203-l- AI2O3) 

Calcium carbonate (CaCOa) 

Calcium sulphate (CaS04) 

Magnesium carbonate (MgCOs) 

Sodium chloride (NaCl) 

Magnesium sulphate (MgS04), sodium sulphate (Na2S04), volatile, organic, and loss. 



492 
92 
4 
72 
49 
37 
86 

152 



344 
61 
2 
74 
41 
42 
70 



1 Reported by the chemist in grains per gallon. 

2 Sample collected Aug. 27, 1905. 

3 Lee, W. T., Water-Supply Paper U. S, Geol. Survey No. 217, 1908, p. 51. 

State test well near Enterprise. — A test w^ell was sunk by the State 
at a point a few rods north of the boundary between Iron and Wash- 
ington Counties and near the line between Rs. 16 and 17 W. As 
far as could be ascertained no record was kept and the only infor- 
mation w^as that furnished from memory by the driller, Mr. Halter- 
man, of Parowan. He states that the materials penetrated by the 
drill consisted of gTavel and other unconsolidated sediments for the 
first 300 feet, and of red rock from this depth to about 700 feet, where 
hard rock was struck and the drilling was stopped. He states also 
that water was found at the depth of 40 feet and at various horizons 
below this level, and that the water from the unconsolidated sediments 
rose within about 40 feet of the top of the well, but that the water 
from the rock remained 90 feet below the surface. It appears that 



156 



GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 



no tests were made of the quantity or quality of the water and that 
the well has remained practically unused. 

Well of the New Castle Reclamation Go. — The New Castle Kecla- 
mation Co. has a dug well, 86 feet deep, situated in the NE. J sec. Y, 
T. 36 S., E. 15 W., several miles northwest of the Mouth of Pinto. In 
October, 1908, the water in this well stood 81 feet below the surface, 
was yielded freely, and was considered to be of good quality. 

Section of the Neto Castle Reclamation Go's well. 



Depth. 



Clay loam . , . , 

Gravel 

Clay and sand alternating 

Gravel 

Clay 

Hard clay 

Black gravelly sand 

Dense clay 

Black sand (water which did not rise) 

Dense clay 

Black sand (water which rose to level of first water-bearing bed) . . . 

Clay 

Sand (water which rose to level of first water-bearing bed), entered 




Feet. 



18 

26 

40 

48 

75 

76i 

79 



Other wells. — The well just described is typical of more than a 
score of wells that have been dug at different points in the desert, 
chiefly for the purpose of watering sheep or other live stock. Prac- 
tically all of these wells are less than 100 feet deep because the holes 
that were dug where the ground-water table is more than this dis- 
tance below the surface were generally abandoned before the requi- 
site depth was reached. Most of the dug wells yield water of fairly 
good quality and in ample amounts for stock purposes, but there are 
exceptions both as to quality and quantity. 



DEPTH TO GROUND WATER. 

Vicinity of Lund. — The depth to which it is necessary to sink a 
well in order to reach the ground-water table depends largely on the 
altitude of the surface. At Lund the water table nearly coincides 
with the surface, and this condition prevails west of Lund to Sulphur 
Springs, north, northeast, east, and southeast of Lund for some miles, 
and south of Lund to beyond Webster's flowing well. With certain 
interruptions, it also prevails from Webster's flowing well to T. 35 
S., R. 16 W., where water is obtained at very shallow depths. 

Between Lund and Modena. — Along the railroad south westward 
from Lund the surface gradually rises, but water can be obtained at 
moderate depths between Lund and Beryl (see p. 155) and probably 
between Beryl and a point some distance southwest of Morton, be- 
yond which the railroad has a steeper gradient and the depth to water 



ESCALANTE DESERT. 157 

is greater. In going from the railroad toward the western moun- 
tains the depth to water also increases, and near the mountains it 
may be impracticable to get wells. 

Southeast of Modena. — East and southeast of Modena there is an 
extensive area of fertile land that lies somewhat above the desert flat 
and is partly encircled b}' low rocky ridges. Except near the ridges, 
wells can probably be obtained in this area at reasonable depths, but 
flows are not to be expected. 

North of Enterprise. — Water can probably be obtained at mod- 
erate depths on a large part of the bench that lies east of the ridge 
extending northward from Enterprise. On the low ground at the 
foot of this bench there are some indications that flows could be 
obtained. 

Vicinity of New Castle. — An alluvial slope extends along the border 
of the mountains from Enterprise to the vicinity of New Castle and 
from New Castle to the north end of the Iron Mountains. This belt 
is especially wide in the reentrant occupied by the alluvial fan of 
Pinto Creek. A number of wells already sunk in the region give some 
indications as to the position of the water table. Thus in the NE. J 
sec. 7, T. 36 S., K. 15 W., ground water was found at the depth of 
80 feet ; near the middle of the line between T. 36 S. and T. 35 S., in 
R. 15 W., it was found at about the same depth; and on sec. 31, T. 
35 S., R. 15 W., it was found at 25 or 30 feet. 

Eastern part of the desert. — In the low-lying areas of the eastern 
part of the desert the water table can be reached by sinking to mod- 
erate depths but on the higher benches the distance to water is no 
doubt great. The Iron Mountains are projected northward in two 
ranges, one of which extends to Antelope Springs, the other to Iron 
Springs and beyond. (See PI, II.) Between these tw^o ranges there 
is a wide reentrant which occupies a township or more of land and 
consists of a large alluvial slope in the shape of an amphitheater. In 
this reentrant plain, especially at the higher levels, the prospects for 
obtaining water are poor. 

QUALITY OF GROUND WATER. 

In the railroad wells at Lund and Berjd water of satisfactory 
quality was found, as is shown by the analyses given on pages 151—155. 
These analyses and less definite data in regard to other wells indicate 
that the water in the beds of sand and gravel underlying Escalante 
Desert is in general not so highly mineralized as to be unfit for culi- 
nary use or irrigation. An exception is formed by some of the dug 
wells in the shallow-water tracts, the water from which, like the soil 
in the same tracts, may be heavily charged with mineral salts. 



158 GROUND WATERS IN WESTERN UTAH. 

USE or GROUND WATER. 

The ground water of this region is used for locomotive, live-stock, 
and culinary supplies. Kelatively large amounts of fairly good 
water are required for locomotive supplies, and consequently the 
most thorough and valuable explorations for ground water in this 
region have been made by the railroad company. As can be seen from 
the descriptions of the wells at Lund, Beryl, and Modena, the efforts 
to secure satisfactory railroad supplies were, on the whole, success- 
ful in this region, in which respect Escalante Desert contrasts favor- 
ably with the lower part of Sevier Desert and Lower Beaver Valley. 
Most of the wells in this desert have been dug for the purpose of pro- 
curing water for live stock, and many springs have been developed in 
the western mountains for the same purpose. These watering places 
have made the range accessible and have thereby added greatly to 
its value. Recently dry farming has been undertaken and accord- 
ingly a new demand for water has been created. 

No serious efforts have yet been made to use the ground water for 
irrigation. Flowing wells are not likely to be of much value for this 
purpose because they are obtained only in low areas where the soil is 
impregnated with alkali, and even in these areas the water is under so 
little pressure that it would be difficult to obtain large enough sup- 
plies to be of consequence in irrigation. On land which lies some- 
what higher than the alkali desert flats and has better soil consider- 
able irrigation water could in the aggregate be recovered by pump- 
ing from moderate depths, but the amount that could be recovered 
in any one locality is probably not great, and it is doubtful whether 
even in the more favored tracts pumping for irrigation would be 
practicable. 



INDEX. 



A. Page. 

Acknowledgments to those aiding 10-1 1 

Alkalies in water, effect of 4G-47 

Alluvial slopes, occurrence of ground water 

on 36-37 

Apparatus used in well construction, descrip- 
tion of and illustrations showing. 61-62 
Artesian conditions, data regarding 37-41 

B. 

Bacteria in water, effect of 46 

Bailey, James R., analysis by 116 

Baker Creek, water of, character of 129 

Bedrock, artesian conditions of 37-38 

confining function of 32 

occurrence of groimd water in 29-32 

"Bench lands," occurrence of ground water 

on 36-37 

Beryl, railway well at, depth, section, and 

analysis of water of 154-156 

Big Spring, water of, character of 129 

water of, temperature of 133 

Black Rock, precipitation at, tables showing. 19, 95 
Black Rock Springs, water of, character and 

analysis of 95-96 

Boilers, water supplies for, sources and qual- 
ity of 57-58 

Burbank, wells near, distribution and char- 
acter of 133 

Burtner, well at, section of 113 

C. 

Calcium, dissolved, effect of, on use of water . 46 
California, conditions governing water sup- 
plies in 60-61 

construction of wells in 60-64 

cost of well construction in , . . . 63-64 

California method of well construction, ad- 
vantages of 60-64 

apparatus and methods, description of. . . 61-62 

cost of 63-64 

figmes illustrating 62, 63 

California well rig, common form of, figure 

showing 63 

Callao, precipitation at, tables showing 19, 128 

well water of, analysis of 136 

wells near, distribution'arfd character of. 135 
Canyon Mountains, wells near, depth and 

yield of 111-112 

Carbonates, dissolved, effect of, on use of 

water 46-47 

Cazier Springs, water froni, analysis of 81 

Cedar City, precipitation at, table showing. . . 19 
Cherry Creek region, topography and water 

resources of 101-104 

Chlorides, dissolved, effect of, on use of water . 46-47 
Clear Lake Springs, water of, character and 

analysis of 9(>-97 

Clear Lake well, water of, character of 100 



Page. 
Coal, availability of, for irrigation purposes . . 53 

Coal Creek, source and drainage area of 144 

Crissman, C. C, analysis by 126 

Crops, value of 53 

Culinary uses, availability of water for 53-55 

D. 

Deep Creek, watering places near, locations of 65-66 
Deseret, analj'sis of water of Jensen well at. . . 116 

precipitation at, diagrams showing 20, 21 

precipitation at, table showing 19 

well at, section of 113 

Deserts, ground water of, mineral content of. . 47-48 
Desert flats, ground water on, occurrence of. 34-36 

Dissolved solids, effect of, on use of water 45-47 

Dog Valley, water supplies of, source of 74-78 

Drilled wells, construction of 59 

Drum and Swasey Wash region, water supplies 

of, sources and character of 104-106 

Dry farming, relation of rainfall to 22-23 

Dry farms, water supplies for, possible sources 

of 55-56 

E. 

Enoch, springs at, character and origin of 145 

Enterprise, precipitation at, tables showing, 19, 150 

well near, depth and yield- of 155-156 

Escalante Desert, geology and physiography 

of 149-150 

ground water of, depth to 156-157 

quality of 157 

use of 158 

rainfall in, data regarding 150 

soil of, character and analyses of 150-151 

spring of, distribution of 152 

streams of, utilization of water of 151-152 

wells of, character of water of 153-156 

F. 

Fernow Valley, water supplies of 74-78 

Fillmore, precipitation at, diagrams showing 20,21 

precipitation at, tables showing 19, 89 

Fish Springs, precipitation at, table showing 129 

watering places near, locations of 65-66 

Fish Springs quadrangle, topographic map 

of. In pocket. 

Fish Springs Valley, topography, springs, and 

ground water of 124-126 

water of, temperature of, table showing. . 133 
Formations, geologic, ages, character, and 

succession of 15-16 

G. 

Garrison, precipitation at, diagrams showing. 20, 21 

precipitation at, tables showing 19, 128 

wells near, distribution and character of. 134 

Geologic history, outline of 16-18 

159 



160 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Geology, features of 15-18 

Goss well, section of 98 

water of, character and analysis of ^ 97-98 

Grazing land, water supplies of, data on 56-57 

Greaves, J. E., analyses by 93, 97 

Ground water, confining effect of bedrock 

upon 32 

in high valleys, occurrence and character 

of... : 37 

in lake deposits, occurrence and character 

of 33-34 

in low valleys, occurrence and character 

of 34 

irrigation with, development of 49-53 

mineral content of 45-49 

occurrence of 29-37 

on alluvial slopes, occurrence and charac- 
ter of 36-37 

on desert fiats, occurrence and character 

of 34-36 

quality of 45-49 

substances contaiaed in, effect of 45-47 

value of, for culinary purposes 53-55 

See also particular valleys, regions, etc. 

H 

Harms, Herman, analyses by 96, 98, 116, 154, 155 

Holden, relation of ground- water table to sur- 
face at, map showing 92 

Hot Springs, character, origin, and distribu- 
tion of 43-44 

I. 

Ibex, location of water at 67 

Igneous rocks, occurrence of ground water in. 30-31 

Industrial development, character of 26-28 

Investigation, purpose of 9 

Iron County, location and area of ' 9 

location and area of, map showing 16 

Iron Springs, character, location, and origin 

of 145 

Irrigation, cost of pumping for 51-53 

ground water available for, quality of . . . 51 
quantity of 50-51 

with ground water, development and 

prospects of 49-53 

See also particular valleys, regions, etc. 
Irrigation wells, construction of 60 

J. 

Jensen well, water of, analysis of 116 

Juab, well near, section of 71 

Juab County , location and area of 9 

location and area of, map showing 10 

Juab Valley, geology and topography of 67-68 

ground water beneath benches in, char- 
acter of 72-73 

ground-water conditions in, map show- 
ing 68 

irrigation with ground water in 74 

rainfall in, tables and diagrams showing. 68-69 
springs of, character and distribution of. . 70 
streams of, courses and partial enumera- 
tion of 69-70 

Water of, availability of, for culinary use. . 74 
• wells of, character, distribution, and typ- 
ical section of 70-72 



K. Page. 

Kanarra Creek, source and drainage area of . . 144 

Kanarraville, wells at. yield of 147 

Kell Springs, water of, character of 130 

Knoll springs, character and locations of 44-45 

Knoll Springs, water of. character of 130 

water of, temperature of 133 

L. 

Lake Bonneville,, area formerly covered by, 

mapshowiag 17 

Lake Creek, water of, character of 129 

Lake deposits, occurrence of ground water in. 33-34 

Lake topography, features of 12-13 

Lava beds, springs from, origin of 43 

Levan, precipitation at, diagrams showing ... 20, 21 

precipitation at, tables showing 19, 69 

Little Creek, source and drainage area of. . . 139-140 

Little Valley, water supplies of 74-78 

Lower Beaver Valley, geology and topog- 
raphy of 94-95 

rainfall in, data on 95 

springs of, distribution and character of. . 95-97 

See also particular springs. 

streams of, data on 95 

wells of, distribution and character of... 97-101 

See also particular wells. 

well sections in, plate showing 36 

Lund, precipitation at, tables showing 19, 150 

soil of, analysis of 151 

well at, section of ^ 154 

water of, analysis of 154 

wells at, yield of 153-154 

wells of San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt 

Lake R. R. near, data on. .... . 153-154 

Lynn, well at, section of 112 

well at, water of, analysis of 116 

Lynn bench, wells of, depth and yield of. . 111-112 

M. 

McConnelFs well, location of 146 

Magnesium, dissolved, effect of, on use of 

water 46 

Means, T. H., on dissolved alkalis 46-47 

Millard County, location and area of 9 

location and area of, map showing 10 

Mining, extent of development of 27-28 

Minor basins, characteristics and partial enu- 
meration of 13-14 

Modena, precipitation at, diagrams showing. . 20, 21 

precipitation at, tables showing 19, 150 

Mountain areas , water from , character of 47 

Mountain springs, characteristics of 41-42 

N. 

Neels well, section of 99-100 

water of, character of 99 

Nephi, precipitation at, figure showing 69 

precipitation at, table showing 19 

New Castle Reclamation Co. well, section of. . 156 

O. 

Oak City, precipitation at, table showing — 19 

Oasis, railway well at, water of, analysis of. . . 117 

well at, section of 113 



NDEX. 



161 



Page. I 
Old River Bed, topography and water re- 
sources of 101-104 

Organic matter, in water, effect of 45 

P. 

Parowan , precipitation at , diagrams showing. 20. 21 

precipitation at, table showing 19 

Parowan Creeiv, character of flow of 139 ' 

Parowan Valley, geology and physiography 

of 138-139 I 

rainfall of, data regarding 139 ! 

springs of, character of 140 \ 

streams of, character and locations of. . . 139-140 
water of, suitability of for culinary uses. . 142 
wells of, depth, locations, and yield of — 140-142 
Pavant Valley, geology, topography, and 

water resources of 86-94 

ground water of, occurrence, quality, and 

utilization of 89-93 

rainfall in, data on 88-89 

streams and springs of, data on 89 

water of, culinary use of 93-94 

water supplies of, map showing 87 

Perforators, illustrations showing 62 

Physiography, features of 11-14 

units of discussion of 11 

Pinto, precipitation at, table showing 150 

" Pit flow " wells, construction of 59-60 

Pleasant Valley, wells near, distribution and 

character of 135 

Pool springs, character and partial enumera- 
tion jf 44-45 

Population, distribution of 26-28 

Precipitation, annual, diagram showing 20 

aimual, table showing 19 

monthly diagram showing 21 

Preuss Valley , conditions affecting water sup- 
ply of 117-119 

See also Wah Wah Valley. 
Provinces, physiographic, distinctions be- 
tween 11-12 

Pumping, for irrigation, cost of 51-53 

R. 

Railway facilities, development of, and effect 

of 28 

Railway stations, watering stations near, 

partial enumeration of 64-65 

Rainfall, data regarding 18-23 

diagrams showing amount of 20, 21 

geographic distribution of 18-21 

relation of, to dry farming 22-23 

tables showing amount of 19 

variation in amount of 21-22 

Ranches, relations of, to water supply 27 

Ranges, water supplies of, availability of 56-57 

Red Creek, source and drainage area of . . . 139-140 
Round Valley, water supplies of, source and 

character of 74-78 

Routes of travel, watering places on, locations 

of 64-67 

Rush Lake Valley, geology and physiography 

of 142-143 

irrigation in, development of 148-149 

90398°— wsp 277—11 11 



Page. 

Rush Lake Valley, rainfall in, data regard- 
ing..! 143-144 

south basin of, map showing location of. . 146 
springs of, character and distribution of 144-145 

streams of, utilization of water of 144 

water of, suitability of, for culinary uses. . 149 
wells of, locations of, and character of 

water of 145-149 

S. 

Sage Valley, water supplies of, sources and 

character of 74-78 

Scipio, precipitation at, diagrams showing. . . 20, 21 

precipitation at, table showing 19 

Sedimentary rocks, occurrence of ground 

water in : 29-30 

Sediments, unconsolidated, character of 32-33 

See also Unconsolidated sediments. 
Seepage, from unconsolidated sediments, con- 
ditions favorable to 42 

Settlements, relation of, to water supplies ... 27 

Sevier Desert, artesian conditions of 114-115 

ground-water level of 109 

irrigation in, development of 110-111 

ph5'siography of 106-108 

rainfall in, data regarding 108 

soil of, character and analysis of 109 

vegetation of, character of 110 

water of, quality of 115-117 

water-bearing beds of, positions of Ill 

well sections in, plate showing 36 

Sevier Lake, fluctuations in level of 119-120 

position of 120 

water of, analysis of 121 

quality of 120-121 

Sevier Lake bottoms, quality of water supply 
and effect of fluctuation of lake 

level on 119-121 

Shirts Creek, source and drainage area of 144 

Shirts Lake, springs near, character and loca- 
tion of 145 

Silver City, relation of springs supplying, to 

precipitation, plate showing 78 

Slichter, C. S., on cost of pumping for irri- 
gation 52 

on well construction in California 60-64 

Snake Creek, water of, character of 129 

Snake Valley, geography and water supply 

of 127-137 

irrigation in, data on 137 

rainfall and vegetation of 128-129 

springs and streams of 129-133 

water of, temperature of, table showing. . 133 

watering places near, locations of*. 66-67 

wells and ground-water prospects of . . 133-137 

Soil, at Lund, analysis of 151 

character of 23-24 

near Lake Sevier, analysis of 118 

of Sevier Desert, analysis of HO 

quality of.effectof, on irrigation projects. 51 
Solids, dissolved, effect of, on use of water — 4.5-47 
Springs, character distribution, and classifi- 

cat ion of 41-45 

water of, mineral content of 48-49 



162 



INDEX. 



Page. 

Starr, well near, water of, analysis of 73 

"Stovepipe" method of well construction, 

description of 60-64 

See also California method. 
Stream deposits, occurrence of ground water 

in 33 

Streams, character and partial enumeration 

of 25-26 

Stream topography, features of - 12 

Stream water, pollution of 53-54 

value of, for household use 53-54 

Sulphates, dissolved, effect of, on use of water . 46 

Swan Lake farm well, section of 101 

water of, character of 100-101 

Swasey Wash region, water supply of 104r-106 

T. 

Tanner, Caleb, work of 9 

Thorley's wells, location and character of. . 146-147 
Tintic mining district, geology and water re- 
sources of 81-86 

mrnes of, relations of, to water supply 85 

relation of water supply to igneous rocks 

in, map showing 83 

springs of, characteristics of 82-83 

watering places in, locations of 65 

wells of, character and distribution of. . . 84-85 
Tuitic Valley, geology, topography, and water 

resources of 78-81 

Topography, features of 12-14 

lake action upon 12-13 

stream action upon 12 

wind action upon 13 

Travel, routes of, watering places on, loca- 
tions of 64^67 

Trout Creek,precipitation at,tables showing. 19, 128 
Typhoid, agency of stream waters in spread- 
ing 53-54 

U. 

Unconsolidated sediments, artesian condi- 
tions of 38-40 

character of... 32-33 

occurrence of ground water in 32-37 

seepage from, conditions favoring 42 

Utah, sections of, covered in report, map show- 
ing 10 



Page, 
Utah, State Geological Survey of, work of . . 9 
Utah mine, water of, analysis of 126 

V. 

Valleys, artesian conditions in 38-40 

artesian conditions of, cross section show- 
ing 38 

ground water of, mineral content of 47 

occurrence of 34, 37 

Variation, annual, in amount of rainfall 21-22 

seasonal, in amount of rainfall 22 

Vegetation, character of 24-25 

W. 

Wah Wah Valley, conditions affecting water 

supply of 117-119 

ground-water prospects in 119 

rainfall in, data on .- 118 

soil of, character and analysis of 118 

topography of 117-118 

Ward's ranch, springs at, character and origin 

of 144^145 

Warm Springs, water of, character of 131 

water of, temperature of 133 

Water, substances contained in, effect of 45-47 

>See a^so Ground water; Springs; Wells. 
Watering places, on routes of travel, locations 

of 64^67 

Webster's well, in Escalante Desert, water of, 

quality of 153 

near Enoch, location and character of flow 

of 145-146 

Wells, construction of 58-6^ 

construction of, California- method of 60-64 

drilled, on alluvial slopes, advantages of. 59 

irrigation, proper construction of .... 60 

"pit flow," proper construction of 59-60 

types of 58-59 

Well sections, in Sevier Desert and Lower 

Beaver Valley, plate showing 36 

White Kiver valley, geography, springs, and 

ground-water prospects of 121-124 

Williams's wells, location, depth, and yield 

of 147 

Willow Springs, water of, character of 132 

Wind topography, features of 13 



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